The molecular mechanism of protein denaturation in supercritical CO2: The role of exposed lysine residues is explored

Electrostatic interactions of enzymes in non-aqueous conditions: insights from molecular dynamics simulations

Electrostatic interactions of enzymes and their effects on enzyme activity and stability are poorly understood in non-aqueous conditions. Here, we investigate the contribution of the electrostatic interactions on the stability and activity of enzymes in the non-aqueous environment using molecular dynamics simulations. Lipase was selected as active and lysozyme as inactive model enzymes in non-aqueous media. Hexane was used as a common non-aqueous solvent model. In agreement with the previous experiments, simulations show that lysozyme has more structural instabilities than lipase in hexane. The number of hydrogen bonds and salt bridges of both enzymes is dramatically increased in hexane. In contrast to the other opinions, we show that the increase of the electrostatic interactions in non-aqueous media is not so favorable for enzymatic function and stability. In this condition, the newly formed hydrogen bonds and salt bridges can partially denature the local structure of the enzymes. For lysozyme, the changes in electrostatic interactions occur in all domains including the active site cleft, which leads to enzyme inactivation and destabilization. Interestingly, most of the changes in electrostatic interactions of lipase occur far from the active site regions. Therefore, the active site entrance regions remain functional in hexane. The results of this study reveal how the changes in electrostatic interactions can affect enzyme stability and activity in non-aqueous conditions. Moreover, we show for the first time how some enzymes, such as lipase, remain active in a non-aqueous environment.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

The use of green technologies for processing lupin seeds (Lupinus angustifolius L.): Extraction of non-polar and polar compounds for concentrated-protein flour production

This study aimed to promote the valorization of lupin seeds by extracting both non-polar and polar fractions to produce a protein-rich flour suitable for food applications. Green extraction methods such as Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE) and SFE followed by gas-expanded liquid extraction with ethanol/CO2 mixtures were employed. SFE yielded lupin oil with extraction yields ranging from 2.27 ± 0.02 to 4.5 ± 0.2 %, significantly influenced by temperature (40 and 60 °C) and pressure (150-350 bar). SFE extracts exhibited higher tocopherol concentration, particularly α-tocopherol (116.7-296.9 µg/g oil) and γ-tocopherol (2006-4749 µg/g oil), compared to the Bligh and Dyer (B&D) method. The fatty acid profiles were similar, although they differed slightly in composition, with the extracts obtained by SFE having higher proportions of unsaturated fatty acids (UFA) and lower proportions of saturated fatty acids (SFA). Ethanol proportion positively correlated with extraction yield (r = 0.991), resulting in higher recovery of polar lipids (PL). However, increasing ethanol percentage decreased the phenolic compounds content and antioxidant activity assessed by DPPH radical scavenging method. SFE produced lupin flour with 36 % protein content, increased by 11 % post-extraction. Ethanolic extraction also increased protein concentration, albeit less pronounced (6.8-11 % increase post-sequential extraction). Essential amino acids consistently increased post-SFE, highlighting the potential of this sustainable method to yield protein-rich flour free of non-GRAS (Generally Recognized as Safe) solvents and containing compounds essential for human health. SDS-PAGE analysis showed consistent protein profiles across all extracted flours, while FTIR assessment revealed changes in the secondary structure of proteins induced by SFE and SFE followed by gas-expanded liquid extraction processes. These findings highlight the potential of this approach to enhance the nutritional and commercial value of lupin-based products while promoting sustainable food processing practices.

Investigating the Effect of Rosemary Essential Oil, Supercritical CO2 Processing and Their Synergism on the Quality and Microbial Inactivation of Chicken Breast Meat

Fresh chicken meat is a very perishable good, even at refrigerated storage conditions, due to psychrophilic microbial growth and physicochemical changes. The present study focuses on the use of rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) essential oil (REO), supercritical CO₂ processing and their synergism to increase the microbial inactivation in chicken breast meat. E. coli and L. innocua were inoculated on the chicken breast surface, and the inactivation effects of two different processes, namely SC-CO₂ and SC-MAPCO₂, were compared with or without the addition of REO. Moreover, the impact of the treatments on the superficial color of the meat was considered. The study demonstrated a synergic effect with 1% REO and supercritical CO₂ for the inactivation of E. coli on chicken meat, while for L. innocua, there was no synergism. Regarding SC-CO₂ treatment, the E. coli reduction was 1.29 and 3.31 log CFU/g, while for L. innocua, it was 1.42 and 1.11 log CFU/g, respectively, without and with the addition of 1.0% of REO. The same amount of REO allowed us to obtain a reduction of 1.3 log CFU/g of E. coli when coupled with SC-MAPCO₂. For L. innocua, no reduction was obtained, either with SC-MAPCO₂ or together with REO. The synergism of SC-MAPCO₂ with 1% REO was confirmed for the total psychrophilic bacteria, demonstrating a strong dependence on the microorganism. The color modification induced by the SC-MAPCO₂ process was lower than the SC-CO₂ treatment. Overall, this study demonstrated a possible synergism of the technologies which can support the development of innovative methods to improve the safety and shelf-life of chicken breast meat.

The protein-stabilizing effects of TMAO in aqueous and non-aqueous conditions

We present a new water-dependent molecular mechanism for the widely-used protein stabilizing osmolyte, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), whose mode of action has remained controversial. Classical interpretations, such as osmolyte exclusion from the vicinity of protein, cannot adequately explain the behavior of this osmolyte and were challenged by recent data showing the direct interactions of TMAO with proteins, mainly via hydrophobic binding. Solvent effect theories also fail to propose a straightforward mechanism. To explore the role of water and the hydrophobic association, we disabled osmolyte-protein hydrophobic interactions by replacing water with hexane and using lipase enzyme as an anhydrous-stable protein. Biocatalysis experiments showed that under this non-aqueous condition, TMAO does not act as a stabilizer, but strongly deactivates the enzyme. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations reveal that TMAO accumulates near the enzyme and makes many hydrogen bonds with it, like denaturing osmolytes. Some TMAO molecules even reach the active site and interact strongly with the catalystic traid. In aqueous solvent, the enzyme functions well: the extent of TMAO interactions is reduced and can be divided into both polar and non-polar terms. Structural analysis shows that in water, some TMAO molecules bind to the enzyme surface like a surfactant. We show that these interactions limit water-protein hydrogen bonds and unfavorable water-hydrophobic surface contacts. Moreover, a more hydrophobic environment is formed in the solvation layer, which reduces water dynamics and subsequently, rigidifies the backbone in aqueous solution. We show that osmolyte amphiphilicity and protein surface heterogeneity can address the weaknesses of exclusion and solvent effect theories about the TMAO mechanism.

A Review on the Extraction and Processing of Natural Source-Derived Proteins through Eco-Innovative Approaches

In addition to their nutritional and physiological role, proteins are recognized as the major compounds responsible for the rheological properties of food products and their stability during manufacture and storage. Furthermore, proteins have been shown to be source of bioactive peptides able to exert beneficial effects on human health. In recent years, scholarly interest has focused on the incorporation of high-quality proteins into the diet. This fact, together with the new trends of consumers directed to avoid the intake of animal proteins, has boosted the search for novel and sustainable protein sources and the development of suitable, cost-affordable, and environmentally friendly technologies to extract high concentrations of valuable proteins incorporated into food products and supplements. In this review, current data on emergent and promising methodologies applied for the extraction of proteins from natural sources are summarized. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of these novel methods, compared with conventional methods, are detailed. Additionally, this work describes the combination of these technologies with the enzymatic hydrolysis of extracted proteins as a powerful strategy for releasing bioactive peptides.