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Yang X, Yao L, Fu X, Mukherjee R, Xia Q, Jakubowska MA, Ferdek PE, Huang W. Experimental Acute Pancreatitis Models: History, Current Status, and Role in Translational Research. Front Physiol 2020; 11:614591. [PMID: 33424638 PMCID: PMC7786374 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.614591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute pancreatitis is a potentially severe inflammatory disease that may be associated with a substantial morbidity and mortality. Currently there is no specific treatment for the disease, which indicates an ongoing demand for research into its pathogenesis and development of new therapeutic strategies. Due to the unpredictable course of acute pancreatitis and relatively concealed anatomical site in the retro-peritoneum, research on the human pancreas remains challenging. As a result, for over the last 100 years studies on the pathogenesis of this disease have heavily relied on animal models. This review aims to summarize different animal models of acute pancreatitis from the past to present and discuss their main characteristics and applications. It identifies key studies that have enhanced our current understanding of the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis and highlights the instrumental role of animal models in translational research for developing novel therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinmin Yang
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Sichuan Provincial Pancreatitis Center and West China-Liverpool Biomedical Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Linbo Yao
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Sichuan Provincial Pancreatitis Center and West China-Liverpool Biomedical Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xianghui Fu
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center of Biotherapy, Chengdu, China
| | - Rajarshi Mukherjee
- Liverpool Pancreatitis Research Group, Liverpool University Hospitals National Health Service Foundation Trust and Institute of Systems, Molecular and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Qing Xia
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Sichuan Provincial Pancreatitis Center and West China-Liverpool Biomedical Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | | | - Pawel E. Ferdek
- Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wei Huang
- Department of Integrated Traditional Chinese Medicine and Western Medicine, Sichuan Provincial Pancreatitis Center and West China-Liverpool Biomedical Research Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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Mansfield C. Practical Interpretation and Application of Exocrine Pancreatic Testing in Small Animals. Clin Lab Med 2015; 35:535-54. [PMID: 26297402 DOI: 10.1016/j.cll.2015.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The pancreas remains a difficult organ to evaluate using laboratory methods alone. No single laboratory test is diagnostic of pancreatitis (chronic or acute) without other diagnostic modalities concurring with the diagnosis or ruling out other diseases. The diagnosis of pancreatitis is particularly difficult in cats, and pancreatitis often occurs with other diseases. The use of pancreatic cytology may be useful in diagnosing both inflammation and neoplasia. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI) can be relatively easily diagnosed when clinically manifested by the measurement of trypsinlike immunoreactivity. Diagnosis is more difficult when EPI is subclinical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Mansfield
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Melbourne, 250 Princes Highway, Werribee, Victoria 3030, Australia.
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Heindl M, Tuennemann J, Sommerer I, Mössner J, Hoffmeister A. Loss of Bace1 in mice does not alter the severity of caerulein induced pancreatitis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125556. [PMID: 25961820 PMCID: PMC4427297 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Accepted: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Context Beta-site alpha-amyloid protein cleaving enzyme1 (BACE1) plays a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease. Additional to its moderate expression in the brain, high levels of BACE1 mRNA were found in the pancreas. Murine Bace1 has been immunohistochemicaly detected at the apical pole of acinar cells within the exocrine pancreas of mice and Bace1 activity was observed in pancreatic juice. In vitro experiments revealed enteropeptidase as a putative substrate for Bace1 suggesting a role in acute pancreatitis. Objective The aim of this study was to address a protective mechanism of Bace1 in acute experimental pancreatitis in mice. Methods Acute experimental pancreatitis was induced by intraperitoneal injection of caerulein in homozygote Bace1-/- mice and wild type mice. Serum and tissue analyses were carried out after 4 h, 8 h and 24 h. Measurement of plasma amylase and lipase was performed to confirm pancreatitis induction. In order to assess the severity of pancreatitis H&E stained pancreatic sections were examined regarding edema, inflammation and apoptosis. Immunohistochemical detection of myeloperoxidase (MPO) positive cells was carried out to further quantify the extent of inflammation. Expression of Bace2 within the pancreas was analyzed by immunohistochemistry and RT-qPCR. Results We demonstrate that total loss of Bace1 in mice leads to no alterations in the course of acute experimental caerulein-pancreatitis. Bace1-/- mice develop a moderate pancreatitis that is comparable in histomorphological and serological features with those seen in wild type mice. Discussion We discuss the results in the context of the applied caerulein induced edematous pancreatitis model and possible compensatory mechanisms via Bace2 that might be responsible for the observed results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Heindl
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | - Jan Tuennemann
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ines Sommerer
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Joachim Mössner
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Albrecht Hoffmeister
- Department of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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Mansfield C. Practical Interpretation and Application of Exocrine Pancreatic Testing in Small Animals. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2013; 43:1241-60, v-vi. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2013.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Ma B, Wu L, Lu M, Gao B, Qiao X, Sun B, Xue D, Zhang W. Differentially expressed kinase genes associated with trypsinogen activation in rat pancreatic acinar cells treated with taurolithocholic acid 3-sulfate. Mol Med Rep 2013; 7:1591-6. [PMID: 23467886 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2013.1355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypsinogen activation is the initial factor involved in the development of all types of acute pancreatitis (AP) and has been suggested to be regulated by protein kinases. In the present study, AR42J rat pancreatic acinar cells were treated with taurolithocholic acid 3-sulfate (TLC-S), and trypsinogen activation was detected with bis-(CBZ-L-isoleucyl-L-prolyl-L-arginine amide) dihydrochloride (BZiPAR) staining and flow cytometry. Differentially expressed protein kinase genes were screened by Gene Chip analysis, and the functions of these kinases were analyzed. A significantly increased activation of trypsinogen in AR42J cells following treatment with TLC-S was observed. A total of 22 differentially expressed protein kinase genes were found in the TLC-S group, among which 19 genes were upregulated and 3 were downregulated. Based on the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database, kinase genes of the same KEGG pathways were connected to create a network through signaling pathways, and 10 nodes of kinases were identified, which were mitogen-activated protein kinase (Mapk)8, Mapk14, Map2k4, interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 3 (Irak3), ribosomal protein S6 kinase, 90 kDa, polypeptide 2 (Rps6ka2), protein kinase C, alpha (Prkca), v-yes-1 Yamaguchi sarcoma viral related oncogene homolog (Lyn), protein tyrosine kinase 2 beta (Ptk2b), p21 protein (Cdc42/Rac)-activated kinase 4 (Pak4) and FYN oncogene related to SRC, FGR, YES (Fyn). The interactions between signaling pathways were further analyzed and a network was created. MAPK and calcium signaling pathways were found to be located at the center of the network. Thus, protein kinases constitute potential drug targets for AP treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biao Ma
- Department of General Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, Heilongjiang 150001, PR China
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Okamura D, Starr ME, Lee EY, Stromberg AJ, Evers BM, Saito H. Age-dependent vulnerability to experimental acute pancreatitis is associated with increased systemic inflammation and thrombosis. Aging Cell 2012; 11:760-9. [PMID: 22672542 DOI: 10.1111/j.1474-9726.2012.00841.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The severity and mortality rates of acute pancreatitis (AP) are significantly elevated in the elderly population. However, due to a lack of appropriate animal models, the underlying mechanisms for this age-dependent vulnerability remain largely unknown. The purpose of this study was to characterize a murine model of AP, which displays age-associated severity, and to use this model to identify pathophysiologies that are distinctive of the aged with AP. AP was induced in young (4-5 months), middle-aged (12-13 months), and aged (23-25 months) C57BL/6 mice by repeated injection of caerulein, a homologue of the gastrointestinal hormone cholecystokinin. Approximately 10% of aged mice died during AP, while young and middle-aged mice showed no mortality. Although both young and aged mice exhibited early signs of edema and inflammation in the pancreas, kidney, and lung, young mice showed signs of recovery within 24 h, while aged mice exhibited increasingly severe tissue damage and cell death. There was a significant age-dependent increase in pancreatic neutrophil activation and systemic inflammation as assessed by pancreatic myeloperoxidase and plasma interleukin-6 (IL-6) concentration, respectively. Importantly, aged but not young mice with AP showed significantly elevated thrombosis in the lung and kidney as well as a marked increase in plasma concentration of plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1), a primary inhibitor of the fibrinolytic system. These results demonstrate that aging is associated with increased severity of AP characterized by augmented and prolonged pancreatic inflammation and the presence of multiple extra-pancreatic sequelae including thrombosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daiki Okamura
- Department of Surgery, Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536-0298, USA
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Mansfield C. Acute Pancreatitis in Dogs: Advances in Understanding, Diagnostics, and Treatment. Top Companion Anim Med 2012; 27:123-32. [DOI: 10.1053/j.tcam.2012.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Mansfield CS, Watson PD, Jones BR. Specificity and sensitivity of serum canine pancreatic elastase-1 concentration in the diagnosis of pancreatitis. J Vet Diagn Invest 2011; 23:691-7. [DOI: 10.1177/1040638711407875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the current study was to determine the sensitivity and specificity of serum canine pancreatic elastase-1 (cPE-1) for the diagnosis of pancreatitis in dogs. The study was prospective, assessing dogs presenting with clinical signs similar to pancreatitis. Sixty-one dogs were recruited (49 with pancreatic disease and 12 with non-pancreatic disease). There was no significant difference in serum cPE-1 between dogs with pancreatic disease and non-pancreatic disease. However, there was a significant difference in serum cPE-1 between severe acute pancreatitis and non-pancreatic disease. A cut-off value for serum cPE-1 > 17.24 ng/ml resulted in sensitivity of 61.4% and specificity of 91.7% for diagnosis of all types of pancreatic disease. The sensitivity rose to 65.85% and 78.26% for the diagnosis of all types of acute pancreatitis and severe acute pancreatitis, respectively. Serum cPE-1 is more sensitive at diagnosing severe acute pancreatitis than chronic or mild acute pancreatitis, and has a high positive likelihood ratio. Dogs with chronic pancreatitis tended to have lower serum cPE-1 concentration, suggesting decreased exocrine function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline S. Mansfield
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia (Mansfield)
- The Queen’s Veterinary School Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK (Watson)
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Studies, University College, Dublin, Belfield, Ireland (Jones)
| | - Penny D. Watson
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia (Mansfield)
- The Queen’s Veterinary School Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK (Watson)
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Studies, University College, Dublin, Belfield, Ireland (Jones)
| | - Boyd R. Jones
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia (Mansfield)
- The Queen’s Veterinary School Hospital, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK (Watson)
- Department of Small Animal Clinical Studies, University College, Dublin, Belfield, Ireland (Jones)
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Zou XP, Chen M, Wei W, Cao J, Chen L, Tian M. Effects of enteral immunonutrition on the maintenance of gut barrier function and immune function in pigs with severe acute pancreatitis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2011; 34:554-66. [PMID: 20852186 DOI: 10.1177/0148607110362691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study evaluated the effects of enteral immunonutrition (EIN) supplemented with glutamine, arginine, and probiotics on gut barrier function and immune function in pigs with severe acute pancreatitis (SAP). METHODS The model was induced by retrograde injection of 5% sodium taurocholate and trypsin via the pancreatic duct. After induction of SAP, 18 pigs were randomly divided into 3 groups, in which either parenteral nutrition (PN), control enteral nutrition (CEN), or EIN was applied for 8 days. Serum and pancreatic fluid amylase concentration was determined. Intestinal permeability (lactulose to mannitol ratio) was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, and plasma endotoxin was quantified by the chromogenic limulus amebocyte lysate technique. Samples of venous blood and organs were cultured using standard techniques. Pancreatitis severity and villi of ileum were scored according to histopathologic grading. Plasma T-lymphocyte subsets were measured by flow cytometry, and immunoglobulins (Igs) were determined via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS There were no significant differences in serum and pancreatic fluid amylases concentrations or in pancreatitis severity between any 2 of the 3 groups. Compared with PN and CEN, EIN significantly decreased intestinal permeability, plasma endotoxin concentration, and the incidence and magnitudes of bacterial translocation, but increased ileal mucosal thickness, villous height, crypt depth, and percentage of normal intestinal villi. Significant differences were found in CD3+, CD4+ lymphocyte subsets, the ratio of CD4+: CD8+ lymphocyte subsets, and serum IgA and IgG, but not IgM, between any 2 of the 3 groups. CONCLUSIONS EIN maintained gut barrier function and immune function in pigs with SAP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ping Zou
- Department of Gastroenterology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University Medical School, Nanjing, P.R. China.
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Hackert T, Tudor S, Felix K, Dovshanskiy D, Hartwig W, Simon WA, Werner J. Effects of Pantoprazole in experimental acute pancreatitis. Life Sci 2010; 87:551-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2010.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2010] [Revised: 08/31/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Fortunato F, Bürgers H, Bergmann F, Rieger P, Büchler MW, Kroemer G, Werner J. Impaired autolysosome formation correlates with Lamp-2 depletion: role of apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis in pancreatitis. Gastroenterology 2009; 137:350-60, 360.e1-5. [PMID: 19362087 DOI: 10.1053/j.gastro.2009.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2008] [Revised: 03/13/2009] [Accepted: 04/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS Acute pancreatitis constitutes a life-threatening condition in which pancreatic acinar cells undergo massive cell death. We investigated the incidence of apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis affecting acinar cells in the early onset of acute pancreatitis induced by chronic alcohol feeding and acute endotoxemia. METHODS Rats were fed either an ethanol-containing or a control diet over 14 weeks and killed 3 or 24 hours after a single lipopolysaccharide injection. Apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy of pancreatic acinar cells were assessed by histology, electron microscopy, immunofluorescence, and biochemical methods. RESULTS The combination of alcohol exposure and endotoxemia resulted in the depletion of several lysosomal proteins including lysosomal-associated membrane protein-2 (Lamp-2), a protein that is required for the proper fusion of autophagosomes with lysosomes. Accordingly, Lamp-2 depletion correlated with the accumulation of autophagosomes and a relative paucity of autolysosomes, reduced adenosine-5'-triphosphate levels, and a switch from apoptotic to necrotic cell death. This switch to necrosis was accompanied by reduced caspase activation and the nuclear release of the proinflammatory factor high mobility group box 1. Importantly, human patients with alcoholic pancreatitis also exhibited local Lamp-2 depletion, which points to a crucial role for Lamp-2 and autophagy in pancreatic acinar cell death. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that acinar cell vacuolization in pancreatitis is mediated by an endotoxemia-induced inhibition of the late stage of autophagy. The combination of alcohol and endotoxemia attenuated apoptosis response yet enhanced acinar cell necrosis. The depletion of lysosomal proteins plays a critical role in the early onset of acute pancreatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franco Fortunato
- Department of General, Visceral, and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Heidelberg, Germany.
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Hartwig W, Schimmel E, Hackert T, Fortunato F, Bergmann F, Baczako A, Strobel O, Büchler MW, Werner J. A novel animal model of severe pancreatitis in mice and its differences to the rat. Surgery 2008; 144:394-403. [PMID: 18707038 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2008.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2007] [Accepted: 04/08/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A noninvasive model of necrohemorrhagic pancreatitis induced by simultaneous intravenous cerulein/enterokinase (EK) infusion has recently been established in rats. The aim of the present study was to establish this new model in mice and to compare it with the rat model. METHODS Male Balb/C mice (20 to 25 g) were used for the experiments. Pancreatitis was induced by simultaneous intravenous infusion of cerulein and EK. Controls were infused with either 0.9% NaCl, cerulein, or EK. Animals were humanely killed 6 hours after start of infusions. Pancreatic and pulmonary injury was assessed by histology, wet-to-dry weight ratio, and myeloperoxidase activity. Systemic cytokine, amylase, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels in blood were measured to assess pancreatic and systemic inflammatory response. To evaluate the role of protease activity in this model, trypsin, cathepsin B, and elastase activity were measured in pancreatic tissue. Survival experiments were performed to determine survival time and tissue injury in the later course of the disease. RESULTS Mice with simultaneous cerulein/EK infusion developed marked local and systemic organ injury compared with those animals who received cerulein or EK alone. Pancreatic and pulmonary injury increased with high concentrations of cerulein/EK infusions. Survival decreased in these animals. Whereas acinar cell apoptosis was an early finding, pancreatic necrosis was observed later in the course of the disease. Serum levels of LDH, interleukin (IL)-1 alpha, and IL-1 beta reflected cell damage and the systemic inflammatory response. Protease activity in pancreatic tissue was greatest in animals with simultaneous cerulein/EK infusion. CONCLUSIONS Using intravenous cerulein/EK infusions, a model of lethal acute pancreatitis has been established in mice. Major pancreatic edema, acinar cell apoptosis and necrosis, and pulmonary leukocyte sequestration are characteristic findings in this model. Although pancreatic injury was not as strong as in the rat model, this model may prove useful for future studies in transgenic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner Hartwig
- Department of General Surgery, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.
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