1
|
Cetik Yildiz S, Demir C, Cengiz M, Irmak H, Cengiz BP, Ayhanci A. In Vitro Antitumor and Antioxidant Capacity as well as Ameliorative Effects of Fermented Kefir on Cyclophosphamide-Induced Toxicity on Cardiac and Hepatic Tissues in Rats. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1199. [PMID: 38927407 PMCID: PMC11200811 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12061199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Fermented prebiotic and probiotic products with kefir are very important to slow down and prevent the growth of tumors and to treat cancer by stimulating the immune response against tumor cells. Cyclophosphamide (CPx) is widely preferred in cancer treatment but its effectiveness in high doses is restricted because of its side effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the protective effects of kefir against CPx-induced heart and liver toxicity. In an experiment, 42 Wistar albino rats were divided into six treatment groups: the control (Group 1), the group receiving 150 mg/kg CPx (Group 2), the groups receiving 5 and 10 mg/kg kefir (Groups 3 and 4) and the groups receiving 5 and 10 mg/kg kefir + CPx (Group 5 and 6). Fermented kefirs obtained on different days by traditional methods were mixed and given by gavage for 12 days, while a single dose of CPx was administered intraperitoneally (i.p.) on the 12th day of the experiment. It was observed that alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatinine kinase-MB (CK-MB), ischemia modified albumin (IMA) and Troponin I values, which indicate oxidative stress, increased in the CPx-administered group, and this level approached that of the control in the CPx + kefir groups. Likewise, as a result of the kefir, the rats' CPx-induced histopathological symptoms were reduced, and their heart and liver tissue were significantly improved. In conclusion, it was observed that kefir had a cytoprotective effect against CPx-induced oxidative stress, hepatotoxicity and cardiotoxicity, bringing their biochemical parameters closer to those of the control by suppressing oxidative stress and reducing tissue damage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Songul Cetik Yildiz
- Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Health Services Vocational School, Mardin Artuklu University, 47200 Mardin, Türkiye;
| | - Cemil Demir
- Department of Medical Services and Techniques, Health Services Vocational School, Mardin Artuklu University, 47200 Mardin, Türkiye;
| | - Mustafa Cengiz
- Department of Elementary Education, Faculty of Education, Siirt University, 56100 Siirt, Türkiye;
| | - Halit Irmak
- Department of Computer Sciences, Mardin Artuklu University, 47200 Mardin, Türkiye;
| | | | - Adnan Ayhanci
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, 26040 Eskisehir, Türkiye;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Limbad M, Gutierrez Maddox N, Hamid N, Kantono K, Higgins C. Identification of the Microbiota in Coconut Water, Kefir, Coconut Water Kefir and Coconut Water Kefir-Fermented Sourdough Using Culture-Dependent Techniques and Illumina-MiSeq Sequencing. Microorganisms 2024; 12:919. [PMID: 38792748 PMCID: PMC11124093 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12050919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The principal objective of this study was to isolate and identify the microorganisms present in commercial kefir grains, a novel kefir-fermented coconut water (CWK) and a novel coconut water kefir-fermented sourdough using phenotypic identification and Sanger sequencing and examine the microbial diversity of CWK and CWK-fermented sourdough throughout the fermentation process using the MiSeq Illumina sequencing method. The phenotypic characterisation based on morphology identified ten isolates of LAB, five AAB and seven yeasts from kefir (K), CWK and CWK-fermented sourdough (CWKS). The results confirm the presence of the LAB species Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus. plantarum, L. fusant, L. reuteri and L. kunkeei; the AAB species Acetobacter aceti, A. lovaniensis and A. pasteurianus; and the yeast species Candida kefyr, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, C. guilliermondii and C. colliculosa. To the best of our knowledge, the identification of Rhodotorula from kefir is being reported for the first time. This study provides important insights into the relative abundances of the microorganisms in CWKS. A decrease in pH and an increase in the titratable acidity for CWK- and CWK-fermented sourdough corresponded to the increase in D- and L-lactic acid production after 96 h of fermentation. Significant reductions in the pHs of CWK and CWKS were observed between 48 and 96 h of fermentation, indicating that the kefir microorganisms were able to sustain highly acidic environments. There was also increased production of L-lactic acid with fermentation, which was almost twice that of D-lactic acid in CWK.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mansi Limbad
- Department of Food Science, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand; (N.G.M.); (N.H.); (K.K.); (C.H.)
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Konuspayeva G, Baubekova A, Akhmetsadykova S, Faye B. Traditional dairy fermented products in Central Asia. Int Dairy J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2022.105514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
|
4
|
Stoyanova LG, Netrusov AI. Microbiome and Metabiotic Properties of Kefir Grains and Kefirs Based on Them. Microbiology (Reading) 2022; 91:339-355. [PMID: 35967129 PMCID: PMC9358099 DOI: 10.1134/s0026261722100885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The analysis of the literature on the microbiome composition and metabolic properties of kefir available at the RSCI and Web of Science was carried out. Kefir has been used by humans for centuries. It is a useful product of mixed lactic and alcoholic fermentation, produced using evolutionally established associative cultures, collected in an aggregated state termed kefir grains. General characterization of kefir grains from the territorial zones of different continents (Russia, Europe, Asia, and America) is provided. The methods for differentiation and identification of individual species are described, as well as their interactions within the community. The diversity of microbial composition of kefir grains depending on local cultivation conditions and storage processes is shown. The microorganisms present in kefir have a number of properties that determine their metabolism, interaction in the community, beneficial effects on human health and immune system, which is important for the prevention and control of bacterial and viral infections, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L. G. Stoyanova
- Biological Faculty, Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - A. I. Netrusov
- Biological Faculty, Moscow State University, 119234 Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, High School of Economics, 101000 Moscow, Russia
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Georgalaki M, Zoumpopoulou G, Anastasiou R, Kazou M, Tsakalidou E. Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens: From Isolation and Taxonomy to Probiotic Properties and Applications. Microorganisms 2021; 9:2158. [PMID: 34683479 PMCID: PMC8540521 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9102158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
One of the main lactic acid bacterial species found in the kefir grain ecosystem worldwide is Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens, exhibiting strong auto-aggregation capacity and, therefore, being involved in the mechanism of grain formation. Its occurrence and dominance in kefir grains of various types of milk and geographical origins have been verified by culture-dependent and independent approaches using multiple growth media and regions of the 16S rRNA gene, respectively, highlighting the importance of their combination for its taxonomic identification. L. kefiranofaciens comprises two subspecies, namely kefiranofaciens and kefirgranum, but only the first one is responsible for the production of kefiran, the water-soluble polysaccharide, which is a basic component of the kefir grain and famous for its technological as well as health-promoting properties. L. kefiranofaciens, although very demanding concerning its growth conditions, can be involved in mechanisms affecting intestinal health, immunomodulation, control of blood lipid levels, hypertension, antimicrobial action, and protection against diabetes and tumors. These valuable bio-functional properties place it among the most exquisite candidates for probiotic use as a starter culture in the production of health-beneficial dairy foods, such as the kefir beverage.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marina Georgalaki
- Laboratory of Dairy Research, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Iera Odos 75, 118 55 Athens, Greece; (G.Z.); (R.A.); (M.K.); (E.T.)
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Yang M, Yang X, Chen X, Wang J, Liao Z, Wang L, Zhong Q, Fang X. Effect of Kefir on Soybean Isoflavone Aglycone Content in Soymilk Kefir. Front Nutr 2021; 7:587665. [PMID: 33392237 PMCID: PMC7772187 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2020.587665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Kefir is a traditional fermented milk originating in the Caucasus area and parts of Eastern Europe. In this study, the kefir culture, which is modified upon the addition of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) cells, specifically for soymilk kefir fermentation with the highest capacity of isoflavone biotransformation, was successfully produced, and the metagenomics composition of soymilk or milk fermented using these kefir cultures was investigated. The metagenome analysis showed that the microbiota of kefir in M-K (milk inoculated with kefir), SM-K (equal volumes of soymilk and milk inoculated with kefir), and S-K (pure milk inoculated with kefir) were related to the addition of soymilk or not. Furthermore, the HPLC chromatogram revealed that Guixia 2 (Guangzhou, China) may be a good source of soymilk kefir fermentation due to its high isoflavone aglycone content (90.23 ± 1.26 μg/g in daidzein, 68.20 ± 0.74 μg/g in genistein). Importantly, the starter culture created by adding 1.5 g probiotics (Biostime®, Guangzhou, China) to Chinese kefir showed a significant increase in the levels of isoflavone aglycones (72.07 ± 0.53 μg/g in isoflavone aglycones). These results provided insight into understanding the suitable soybean cultivar and starter cultures, which exhibit promising results of isoflavone biotransformation and flavor promotion during soymilk kefir fermentation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minke Yang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaojuan Yang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoqu Chen
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jie Wang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhenlin Liao
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Wang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingping Zhong
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiang Fang
- College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Hamida RS, Shami A, Ali MA, Almohawes ZN, Mohammed AE, Bin-Meferij MM. Kefir: A protective dietary supplementation against viral infection. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 133:110974. [PMID: 33186795 PMCID: PMC7655491 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious disease caused by a recently discovered coronavirus termed 'severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2' (SARS-CoV-2). Several scholars have tested antiviral drugs and compounds to overcome COVID-19. 'Kefir' is a fermented milk drink similar to a thin yogurt that is made from kefir grains. Kefir and its probiotic contents can modulate the immune system to suppress infections from viruses (e.g., Zika, hepatitis C, influenza, rotaviruses). The antiviral mechanisms of kefir involve enhancement of macrophage production, increasing phagocytosis, boosting production of cluster of differentiation-positive (CD4+), CD8+, immunoglobulin (Ig)G+ and IgA+ B cells, T cells, neutrophils, as well as cytokines (e.g., interleukin (IL)-2, IL-12, interferon gamma-γ). Kefir can act as an anti-inflammatory agent by reducing expression of IL-6, IL-1, TNF-α, and interferon-γ. Hence, kefir might be a significant inhibitor of the 'cytokine storm' that contributes to COVID-19. Here, we review several studies with a particular emphasis on the effect of kefir consumption and their microbial composition against viral infection, as well as discussing the further development of kefir as a protective supplementary dietary against SARS-CoV-2 infection via modulating the immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Reham Samir Hamida
- Molecular Biology Unit, Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Egypt.
| | - Ashwag Shami
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Mohamed Abdelaal Ali
- Biotechnology Unit, Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agriculture Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Zakiah Nasser Almohawes
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Afrah E Mohammed
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Optimization of the Production of ε-Poly-L-Lysine by Novel Producer Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Traditional Dairy Products. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 2020:2145656. [PMID: 33083455 PMCID: PMC7559819 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2145656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
New strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were isolated from different traditional dairy products. Six new strains named Lactobacillus delbrueckii strain A01, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus strain D01, Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus strain E01, Lactococcus lactis strain G01, Lactobacillus delbrueckii strain C01, and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus strain F01 were identified using 16S rDNA sequencing, morphological and biochemical traits. All strains have been registered in the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) with accession numbers MN611241.1, MN611300.1, MN611301.1, MN611303.1, MN611241.1, and MN611299.1, respectively. Having found ε-Poly-L-Lysine (ε-PL) in all strains isolated, Lactobacillus delbrueckii strain A01 was identified as an active producer of ε-Poly-L-Lysine (ε-PL). The one-factor-at-a-time method and central composite design were applied to optimize ε-Poly-L-Lysine (ε-PL). A predicted 200 ppm of ε-PL was obtained in the medium containing the lowest level of glucose, 25 g/l, and yeast extract, 6 g/l.
Collapse
|
9
|
A Big World in Small Grain: A Review of Natural Milk Kefir Starters. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8020192. [PMID: 32019167 PMCID: PMC7074874 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8020192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 01/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Milk kefir is a traditional fermented milk product whose consumption is becoming increasingly popular. The natural starter for kefir production is kefir grain, which consists of various bacterial and yeast species. At the industrial scale, however, kefir grains are rarely used due to their slow growth, complex application, bad reproducibility and high costs. Instead, mixtures of defined lactic acid bacteria and sometimes yeasts are applied, which alter sensory and functional properties compared to natural grain-based milk kefir. In order to be able to mimic natural starter cultures for authentic kefir production, it is a prerequisite to gain deep knowledge about the nature of kefir grains, its microbial composition, morphologic structure, composition of strains on grains and the impact of environmental parameters on kefir grain characteristics. In addition, it is very important to deeply investigate the numerous multi-dimensional interactions among different species, which play important roles on the formation and the functionality of grains.
Collapse
|
10
|
Nikolaou A, Sgouros G, Mitropoulou G, Santarmaki V, Kourkoutas Y. Freeze-Dried Immobilized Kefir Culture in Low Alcohol Winemaking. Foods 2020; 9:foods9020115. [PMID: 31973003 PMCID: PMC7073665 DOI: 10.3390/foods9020115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Low alcohol wines represent a rising trend in the global market. Since for ethanol removal, certain physicochemical methods that negatively affect wine quality are applied, the aim of this present study was to evaluate the efficiency of freeze-dried, immobilized kefir culture on natural supports (apple pieces, grape skins and delignified cellulosic material) in low alcohol winemaking at various temperatures (5–30 °C). Initially, genetic analysis of kefir culture was performed by Next Generation Sequencing. There was an immobilization of kefir culture on grape skins-enhanced cell survival during freeze-drying in most cases, even when no cryoprotectant was used. Simultaneous alcoholic and malolactic fermentations were performed in repeated batch fermentations for >12 months, using freeze-dried free or immobilized cells produced with no cryoprotectant, suggesting the high operational stability of the systems. Values of great industrial interest for daily ethanol productivity and malic acid conversion [up to 39.5 g/(Ld) and 67.3%, respectively] were recorded. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that freeze-drying rather than the fermentation temperature affected significantly minor volatiles. All low alcohol wines produced were accepted during the preliminary sensory evaluation.
Collapse
|
11
|
Tan KX, Chamundeswari VN, Loo SCJ. Prospects of kefiran as a food-derived biopolymer for agri-food and biomedical applications. RSC Adv 2020; 10:25339-25351. [PMID: 35517442 PMCID: PMC9055270 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra02810j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a huge demand for food-derived polysaccharides in the field of materials research due to the increasing concerns posed by synthetic biopolymers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kei-Xian Tan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore
| | | | - Say Chye Joachim Loo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
- Singapore
- Singapore Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering
- Nanyang Technological University
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Ferguson JF, Aden LA, Barbaro NR, Van Beusecum JP, Xiao L, Simmons AJ, Warden C, Pasic L, Himmel LE, Washington MK, Revetta FL, Zhao S, Kumaresan S, Scholz MB, Tang Z, Chen G, Reilly MP, Kirabo A. High dietary salt-induced dendritic cell activation underlies microbial dysbiosis-associated hypertension. JCI Insight 2019; 5:126241. [PMID: 31162138 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.126241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Excess dietary salt contributes to inflammation and hypertension via poorly understood mechanisms. Antigen presenting cells including dendritic cells (DCs) play a key role in regulating intestinal immune homeostasis in part by surveying the gut epithelial surface for pathogens. Previously, we found that highly reactive γ-ketoaldehydes or isolevuglandins (IsoLGs) accumulate in DCs and act as neoantigens, promoting an autoimmune-like state and hypertension. We hypothesized that excess dietary salt alters the gut microbiome leading to hypertension and this is associated with increased immunogenic IsoLG-adduct formation in myeloid antigen presenting cells. To test this hypothesis, we performed fecal microbiome analysis and measured blood pressure of healthy human volunteers with salt intake above or below the American Heart Association recommendations. We also performed 16S rRNA analysis on cecal samples of mice fed normal or high salt diets. In humans and mice, high salt intake was associated with changes in the gut microbiome reflecting an increase in Firmicutes, Proteobacteria and genus Prevotella bacteria. These alterations were associated with higher blood pressure in humans and predisposed mice to vascular inflammation and hypertension in response to a sub-pressor dose of angiotensin II. Mice fed a high salt diet exhibited increased intestinal inflammation including the mesenteric arterial arcade and aorta, with a marked increase in the B7 ligand CD86 and formation of IsoLG-protein adducts in CD11c+ myeloid cells. Adoptive transfer of fecal material from conventionally housed high salt-fed mice to germ-free mice predisposed them to increased intestinal inflammation and hypertension. These findings provide novel insight into the mechanisms underlying inflammation and hypertension associated with excess dietary salt and may lead to interventions targeting the microbiome to prevent and treat this important disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jane F Ferguson
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine.,Vanderbilt Translational and Clinical Cardiovascular Research Center
| | - Luul A Aden
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, and
| | | | | | - Liang Xiao
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Alan J Simmons
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, and
| | | | - Lejla Pasic
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, and
| | - Lauren E Himmel
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Mary K Washington
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Frank L Revetta
- Division of Comparative Medicine, Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | | | | | - Matthew B Scholz
- Vanderbilt Technologies for Advanced Genomics core facility, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Zhengzheng Tang
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Guanhua Chen
- Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin
| | - Muredach P Reilly
- Cardiology Division, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York, USA
| | - Annet Kirabo
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, and.,Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lactic Acid Bacteria from Kefir Increase Cytotoxicity of Natural Killer Cells to Tumor Cells. Foods 2018; 7:foods7040048. [PMID: 29584690 PMCID: PMC5920413 DOI: 10.3390/foods7040048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The Japanese fermented beverage, homemade kefir, contains six lactic acid bacteria: Lactococcus. lactis subsp. Lactis, Lactococcus. lactis subsp. Cremoris, Lactococcus. Lactis subsp. Lactis biovar diacetylactis, Lactobacillus plantarum, Leuconostoc meseuteroides subsp. Cremoris and Lactobacillus casei. In this study, we found that a mixture of the six lactic acid bacteria from kefir increased the cytotoxicity of human natural killer KHYG-1 cells to human chronic myelogenous leukemia K562 cells and colorectal tumor HCT116 cells. Furthermore, levels of mRNA expression and secretion of IFN-γ (interferon gamma) increased in KHYG-1 cells that had been treated with the six lactic acid bacteria mixture from kefir. The results suggest that the six lactic acid bacteria mixture from kefir has strong effects on natural immunity and tumor cell cytotoxicity.
Collapse
|
14
|
Exploring the Antimicrobial and Hepatoprotective Effects of Kefir; A Probiotic Fermented Milk. JOURNAL OF PURE AND APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.22207/jpam.11.2.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
|
15
|
|
16
|
Gethins L, Rea MC, Stanton C, Ross RP, Kilcawley K, O'Sullivan M, Crotty S, Morrissey JP. Acquisition of the yeast Kluyveromyces marxianus from unpasteurised milk by a kefir grain enhances kefir quality. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2016; 363:fnw165. [PMID: 27369085 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnw165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Kefir is a fermented milk beverage consumed for nutritional and health tonic benefits in many parts of the world. It is produced by the fermentation of milk with a consortium of bacteria and yeast embedded within a polysaccharide matrix. This consortium is not well defined and can vary substantially between kefir grains. There are little data on the microbial stability of kefir grains, nor on interactions between microbes in the grain and in the milk. To study this, a grain was split, with one half of each stored at -20°C and the other half passaged repeatedly in whole unpasteurised milk. Grains passaged in the unpasteurised milk recovered vigour and acquired the yeast Kluyveromyces marxainus from the milk which was confirmed to be the same strain by molecular typing. Furthermore, these passaged grains produced kefir that was distinguished chemically and organoleptically from the stored grains. Some changes in ultrastructure were also observed by scanning electron microscopy. The study showed that kefir grains can acquire yeast from their environment and the final product can be influenced by these newly acquired yeasts. Kluyveromyces marxianus is considered to be responsible for some of the most important characteristics of kefir so the finding that this yeast is part of the less stable microbiota is significant.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Loughlin Gethins
- School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Teagasc Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland
| | - Mary C Rea
- Teagasc Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Catherine Stanton
- Teagasc Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Co. Cork, Ireland Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - R Paul Ross
- School of Microbiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Maurice O'Sullivan
- School of Food Science and Nutrition, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Suzanne Crotty
- BioSciences Imaging Centre, Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, Cork, Ireland
| | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bourrie BCT, Willing BP, Cotter PD. The Microbiota and Health Promoting Characteristics of the Fermented Beverage Kefir. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:647. [PMID: 27199969 PMCID: PMC4854945 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00647] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Kefir is a complex fermented dairy product created through the symbiotic fermentation of milk by lactic acid bacteria and yeasts contained within an exopolysaccharide and protein complex called a kefir grain. As with other fermented dairy products, kefir has been associated with a range of health benefits such as cholesterol metabolism and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibition, antimicrobial activity, tumor suppression, increased speed of wound healing, and modulation of the immune system including the alleviation of allergy and asthma. These reports have led to increased interest in kefir as a focus of research and as a potential probiotic-containing product. Here, we review those studies with a particular emphasis on the microbial composition and the health benefits of the product, as well as discussing the further development of kefir as an important probiotic product.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C T Bourrie
- Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of AlbertaEdmonton, AB, Canada; Teagasc Food Research CentreFermoy, Ireland
| | - Benjamin P Willing
- Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Alberta Edmonton, AB, Canada
| | - Paul D Cotter
- Teagasc Food Research CentreFermoy, Ireland; APC Microbiome InstituteCork, Ireland
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Stefanis C, Mantzourani I, Plessas S, Alexopoulos A, Galanis A, Bezirtzoglou E, Kandylis P, Varzakas T. Reviewing Classical and Molecular Techniques Regarding Profiling of Probiotic Character of Microorganisms. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.12944/crnfsj.4.1.05] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In recent years the roles of probiotics as functional ingredients in food has been highly adopted by the consumers and are under constant investigation by the scientific community. As a result, several probiotic-containing foods have been introduced in the market with an annual share of several billion dollars. Of particular interest in the probiotics research is the profiling of probiotic character of the microbes involving both in vitro and in vivo approaches. Initially traditional microbiological techniques were used; however they suffer by many limitations and therefore the development of new techniques, which are primarily based on the analysis of nucleic acids have been introduced. The scope of this review is to present current knowledge about the methodological approaches that are used to quantify and characterize the potential probiotic character of microorganisms. Moreover, it will focus on molecular and non-molecular tools and finally will report some new perspectives in the study of probiotics using omics techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christos Stefanis
- Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Agricultural Development, Laboratory of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Hygiene, Pandazidou 193, GR68200, Orestiada, Greece
| | - Ioanna Mantzourani
- Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Agricultural Development, Laboratory of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Hygiene, Pandazidou 193, GR68200, Orestiada, Greece
| | - Stavros Plessas
- Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Agricultural Development, Laboratory of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Hygiene, Pandazidou 193, GR68200, Orestiada, Greece
| | - Athanasios Alexopoulos
- Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Agricultural Development, Laboratory of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Hygiene, Pandazidou 193, GR68200, Orestiada, Greece
| | - Alexis Galanis
- Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Dragana University Campus, GR68100, Alexandroupolis, Greece
| | - Eugenia Bezirtzoglou
- Democritus University of Thrace, Department of Agricultural Development, Laboratory of Microbiology, Biotechnology and Hygiene, Pandazidou 193, GR68200, Orestiada, Greece
| | - Panagiotis Kandylis
- Department of Food Technology, Technological and Educational Institution of Peloponnese, Antikalamos, Kalamata, Greece
| | - Theodoros Varzakas
- Department of Food Technology, Technological and Educational Institution of Peloponnese, Antikalamos, Kalamata, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Guven M, Akman T, Yener AU, Sehitoglu MH, Yuksel Y, Cosar M. The Neuroprotective Effect of Kefir on Spinal Cord Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury in Rats. J Korean Neurosurg Soc 2015; 57:335-41. [PMID: 26113960 PMCID: PMC4479714 DOI: 10.3340/jkns.2015.57.5.335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 11/20/2014] [Accepted: 11/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective The main causes of spinal cord ischemia are a variety of vascular pathologies causing acute arterial occlusions. We investigated neuroprotective effects of kefir on spinal cord ischemia injury in rats. Methods Rats were divided into three groups : 1) sham operated control rats; 2) spinal cord ischemia group fed on a standard diet without kefir pretreatment; and 3) spinal cord ischemia group fed on a standard diet plus kefir. Spinal cord ischemia was performed by the infrarenal aorta cross-clamping model. The spinal cord was removed after the procedure. The biochemical and histopathological changes were observed within the samples. Functional assessment was performed for neurological deficit scores. Results The kefir group was compared with the ischemia group, a significant decrease in malondialdehyde levels was observed (p<0.05). Catalase and superoxide dismutase levels of the kefir group were significantly higher than ischemia group (p<0.05). In histopathological samples, the kefir group is compared with ischemia group, there was a significant decrease in numbers of dead and degenerated neurons (p<0.05). In immunohistochemical staining, hipoxia-inducible factor-1α and caspase 3 immunopositive neurons were significantly decreased in kefir group compared with ischemia group (p<0.05). The neurological deficit scores of kefir group were significantly higher than ischemia group at 24 h (p<0.05). Conclusion Our study revealed that kefir pretreatment in spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion reduced oxidative stress and neuronal degeneration as a neuroprotective agent. Ultrastructural studies are required in order for kefir to be developed as a promising therapeutic agent to be utilized for human spinal cord ischemia in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mustafa Guven
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Medicine, Çanakkale, Turkey
| | - Tarik Akman
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Medicine, Çanakkale, Turkey
| | - Ali Umit Yener
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Medicine, Çanakkale, Turkey
| | - Muserref Hilal Sehitoglu
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Medicine, Çanakkale, Turkey
| | - Yasemin Yuksel
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Medicine, Afyon, Turkey
| | - Murat Cosar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Faculty of Medicine, Çanakkale, Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Zanirati DF, Abatemarco M, Sandes SHDC, Nicoli JR, Nunes ÁC, Neumann E. Selection of lactic acid bacteria from Brazilian kefir grains for potential use as starter or probiotic cultures. Anaerobe 2014; 32:70-76. [PMID: 25542841 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2014.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Brazilian kefir is a homemade fermented beverage that is obtained by incubating milk or a brown sugar solution with kefir grains that contribute their different microbiological compositions. It is highly important to isolate and characterize microorganisms from Brazilian kefir grains to obtain starter cultures for the industrial production of a standardized commercial kefir. Thus, the present study aimed to isolate lactic acid bacteria from eight kefir grains that were propagated in milk or sugar solutions from five different locations in Brazil and to select Lactobacillus isolates based on desirable in vitro probiotic properties. One hundred eight isolates from both substrates were identified by amplified ribosomal DNA restriction analysis and/or 16S rRNA gene sequencing and were determined to belong to the following 11 species from the genera: Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Lactobacillus (L.), and Oenococcus. Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus kefiri, and Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens were isolated only from milk grains, whereas Lactobacillus perolens, Lactobacillus parafarraginis, Lactobacillus diolivorans, and Oenococcus oeni were isolated exclusively from sugar water grains. When the microbial compositions of four kefir grains were evaluated with culture-independent analyses, L. kefiranofaciens was observed to predominant in milk grains, whereas Lactobacillus hilgardii was most abundant in sugar water kefir. Unfortunately, L. hilgardii was not isolated from any grain, although this bacteria was detected with a culture-independent methodology. Fifty-two isolated Lactobacilli were tested for gastric juice and bile salt tolerance, antagonism against pathogens, antimicrobial resistance, and surface hydrophobicity. Three Lactobacillus strains (L. kefiranofaciens 8U, L. diolivorans 1Z, and Lactobacillus casei 17U) could be classified as potential probiotics. In conclusion, several lactic acid bacteria that could be used in combination with yeasts as starter cultures for both milk kefir and sugar water kefir were characterized, and the functional properties of several of the lactobacilli isolated from the kefir grains were suggestive of their possible use as probiotics in both kefir and other dairy products.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Débora Ferreira Zanirati
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mário Abatemarco
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Sávio Henrique de Cicco Sandes
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Jacques Robert Nicoli
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Álvaro Cantini Nunes
- Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Elisabeth Neumann
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Bagheripoor-Fallah N, Mortazavian A, Hosseini H, Khoshgozaran-Abras S, Rad AH. Comparison of Molecular Techniques with other Methods for Identification and Enumeration of Probiotics in Fermented Milk Products. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2014; 55:396-413. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2012.656771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
|
22
|
Temiz H, Kezer G. Effects of Fat Replacers on Physicochemical, Microbial and Sensorial Properties of Kefir Made Using Mixture of Cow and Goat's Milk. J FOOD PROCESS PRES 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/jfpp.12361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hasan Temiz
- Department of Food Engineering; Engineering Faculty; University of Ondokuz Mayis; Samsun TR-55139 Turkey
| | - Gizem Kezer
- Department of Agricultural Biotechnology; Faculty of Agriculture; Kırşehir Turkey
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Wanangkarn A, Liu DC, Swetwiwathana A, Jindaprasert A, Phraephaisarn C, Chumnqoen W, Tan FJ. Lactic acid bacterial population dynamics during fermentation and storage of Thai fermented sausage according to restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis. Int J Food Microbiol 2014; 186:61-7. [PMID: 25005265 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2014.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2013] [Revised: 06/09/2014] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
This study applied restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis to identify the lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from "mum" Thai fermented sausages during fermentation and storage. A total of 630 lactic acid bacteria were isolated from the sausages prepared using 2 methods. In Method 1, after stuffing, the sausages were stored at 30 °C for 14 days. In Method 2, after stuffing and storage at 30 °C for 3 days, the sausages were vacuum-packed and stored at 4 °C until Day 28. The sausages were sampled on Days 0, 3, 14, and 28 for analyses. The 16S rDNA was amplified and digested using restriction enzymes. Of the restriction enzymes evaluated, Dde I displayed the highest discrimination capacity. The LAB were classified and 7 species were identified For Methods 1 and 2, during fermentation, the Lactobacillus sakei and Lactobacillus plantarum species were dominant. For Method 2, the proportion of Leuconostoc mesenteroides markedly increased during storage, until L. sakei and Ln. mesenteroides represented the dominant species. The identification of LAB in the sausage samples could facilitate the selection of appropriate microorganisms for candidate starter cultures for future controlled mum production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amornrat Wanangkarn
- Department of Agricultural Science, Naresuan University, Phitsanulok 65000, Thailand
| | - Deng-Cheng Liu
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Adisorn Swetwiwathana
- Faculty of Agroindustry, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
| | - Aphacha Jindaprasert
- Faculty of Agroindustry, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Bangkok 10520, Thailand
| | | | - Wanwisa Chumnqoen
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
| | - Fa-Jui Tan
- Department of Animal Science, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Hamet MF, Londero A, Medrano M, Vercammen E, Van Hoorde K, Garrote GL, Huys G, Vandamme P, Abraham AG. Application of culture-dependent and culture-independent methods for the identification of Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens in microbial consortia present in kefir grains. Food Microbiol 2013; 36:327-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2013.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
|
25
|
de Oliveira Leite AM, Miguel MAL, Peixoto RS, Rosado AS, Silva JT, Paschoalin VMF. Microbiological, technological and therapeutic properties of kefir: a natural probiotic beverage. Braz J Microbiol 2013; 44:341-9. [PMID: 24294220 PMCID: PMC3833126 DOI: 10.1590/s1517-83822013000200001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Kefir is a fermented milk beverage produced by the action of bacteria and yeasts that exist in symbiotic association in kefir grains. The artisanal production of the kefir is based on the tradition of the peoples of Caucasus, which has spread to other parts of the world, from the late 19th century, and nowadays integrates its nutritional and therapeutic indications to the everyday food choices of several populations. The large number of microorganisms present in kefir and their microbial interactions, the possible bioactive compounds resulting of microbial metabolism, and the benefits associated with the use this beverage confers kefir the status of a natural probiotic, designated as the 21th century yoghurt. Several studies have shown that kefir and its constituents have antimicrobial, antitumor, anticarcinogenic and immunomodulatory activity and also improve lactose digestion, among others. This review includes data on the technological aspects, the main beneficial effects on human health of kefir and its microbiological composition. Generally, kefir grains contain a relatively stable and specific microbiota enclosed in a matrix of polysaccharides and proteins. Microbial interactions in kefir are complex due to the composition of kefir grains, which seems to differ among different studies, although some predominant Lactobacillus species are always present. Besides, the specific populations of individual grains seem to contribute to the particular sensory characteristics present in fermented beverages. This review also includes new electron microscopy data on the distribution of microorganisms within different Brazilian kefir grains, which showed a relative change in its distribution according to grain origin.
Collapse
|
26
|
Marsh AJ, O’Sullivan O, Hill C, Ross RP, Cotter PD. Sequencing-based analysis of the bacterial and fungal composition of kefir grains and milks from multiple sources. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69371. [PMID: 23894461 PMCID: PMC3716650 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Kefir is a fermented milk-based beverage to which a number of health-promoting properties have been attributed. The microbes responsible for the fermentation of milk to produce kefir consist of a complex association of bacteria and yeasts, bound within a polysaccharide matrix, known as the kefir grain. The consistency of this microbial population, and that present in the resultant beverage, has been the subject of a number of previous, almost exclusively culture-based, studies which have indicated differences depending on geographical location and culture conditions. However, culture-based identification studies are limited by virtue of only detecting species with the ability to grow on the specific medium used and thus culture-independent, molecular-based techniques offer the potential for a more comprehensive analysis of such communities. Here we describe a detailed investigation of the microbial population, both bacterial and fungal, of kefir, using high-throughput sequencing to analyse 25 kefir milks and associated grains sourced from 8 geographically distinct regions. This is the first occasion that this technology has been employed to investigate the fungal component of these populations or to reveal the microbial composition of such an extensive number of kefir grains or milks. As a result several genera and species not previously identified in kefir were revealed. Our analysis shows that the bacterial populations in kefir are dominated by 2 phyla, the Firmicutes and the Proteobacteria. It was also established that the fungal populations of kefir were dominated by the genera Kazachstania, Kluyveromyces and Naumovozyma, but that a variable sub-dominant population also exists.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alan J. Marsh
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Colin Hill
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- * E-mail: (CH); (PDC)
| | - R. Paul Ross
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Paul D. Cotter
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Ireland
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- * E-mail: (CH); (PDC)
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Yeasts from kefir grains: isolation, identification, and probiotic characterization. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2013; 30:43-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s11274-013-1419-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
28
|
Bhattacharya I, Yan S, Yadav JSS, Tyagi RD, Surampalli RY. Saccharomyces unisporus: Biotechnological Potential and Present Status. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2013; 12:353-363. [PMID: 33412685 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The yeast species of the Saccharomyces genus have a long history of traditional applications and beneficial effects. Among these presence of the Saccharomyces unisporus has been documented in various dairy products and has become a subject of interest and great importance. S. unisporus has shown a significant role in the ripening of cheese and production of fermented milk products such as kefir and koumiss. The absence of pseudohyphae during the life cycle of S. unisporus is an indication of nonpathogenicity. Significance has been laid on the presence of S. unisporus in food-grade products and a close proximity of S. unisporus to S. florentinus and both of these species are accepted by the International Dairy Federation and the European Food and Feed Cultures Association for food and feed applications. Since over the years, S. unisporus has already become a part of various dairy products, S. unisporus can be considered as a potential candidate for generally regarded as safe status. S. unisporus has the capacity to convert ketoisophorone to levodione, which is an important pharmaceutical precursor. S. unisporus are considered as the potential producers of farnesol which eventually controls filamentation of pathogenic microorganisms. Apart from that, S. unisporus produces certain omega unsaturated fatty acids which combat diseases. Henceforth, the areas which S. unisporus can be possibly exploited for its useful intermediates are the enzymes and fatty acids it produces. In this context, this review attempts to describe and discuss the ubiquity of S. unisporus in food products, cellular composition, regulatory pathways, and its synthesis of fatty acids and enzymes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Indrani Bhattacharya
- Inst. Natl. de la recherche scientifique, Univ. du Québec, 490, Rue de la Couronne, Québec, Canada, G1K 9A9
| | - Song Yan
- Inst. Natl. de la recherche scientifique, Univ. du Québec, 490, Rue de la Couronne, Québec, Canada, G1K 9A9
| | - Jay Shankar Singh Yadav
- Inst. Natl. de la recherche scientifique, Univ. du Québec, 490, Rue de la Couronne, Québec, Canada, G1K 9A9
| | - R D Tyagi
- Inst. Natl. de la recherche scientifique, Univ. du Québec, 490, Rue de la Couronne, Québec, Canada, G1K 9A9
| | - R Y Surampalli
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), P. O. Box 17-2141, Kansas City, KS 66117, U.S.A
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Leite AMO, Leite DCA, Del Aguila EM, Alvares TS, Peixoto RS, Miguel MAL, Silva JT, Paschoalin VMF. Microbiological and chemical characteristics of Brazilian kefir during fermentation and storage processes. J Dairy Sci 2013; 96:4149-59. [PMID: 23628252 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-6263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 03/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The microbial community composition and chemical characteristics of a Brazilian milk kefir sample produced during its manufacturing and refrigerated storage were investigated by culture-dependent and -independent methods and HPLC. Lactococcus lactis ssp. cremoris and ssp. lactis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Acetobacter lovaniensis, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae were isolated, whereas the detected bands on denaturing gel gradient electrophoresis corresponded to Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens, Lactobacillus kefiri, Lactobacillus parakefiri, and S. cerevisiae. After fermentation, lactic acid bacteria were present at levels of 10 log units, whereas acetic acid bacteria and yeast were present at levels of 7.8 and 6 log units, respectively. The lactic acid bacteria and yeast counts remained constant, whereas acetic acid bacteria counts decreased to 7.2 log units during storage. From fermentation to final storage, the pH, lactose content and citric acid of the kefir beverage decreased, followed by an increase in the concentrations of glucose, galactose, ethanol, and lactic, acetic, butyric, and propionic acids. These microbiological and chemical characteristics contribute to the unique taste and aroma of kefir. This research may serve as a basis for the future industrial production of this beverage in Brazil.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A M O Leite
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
30
|
Vardjan T, Mohar Lorbeg P, Rogelj I, Čanžek Majhenič A. Characterization and stability of lactobacilli and yeast microbiota in kefir grains. J Dairy Sci 2013; 96:2729-36. [PMID: 23497996 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-5829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 01/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Characterization and stability of lactobacilli and yeasts from kefir grains using culture-dependent and culture-independent methods were investigated in this study. Culture-dependent analysis, followed by sequencing of 16S ribosomal DNA for bacteria and 26S rRNA gene for yeasts, revealed 3 different species of lactobacilli and yeasts, respectively. The most frequently isolated bacterial species were Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens ssp. kefirgranum, Lb. parakefiri, and Lb. kefiri, whereas yeasts belonged to Kluyveromyces marxianus, Kazachstania exigua, and Rhodosporidium kratochvilovae. This study is the first to report on the presence of R. kratochvilovae in kefir grains. On the other hand, PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis in the culture-independent method showed that the dominant microorganisms were Lb. kefiranofaciens ssp. kefirgranum, Kl. marxianus and Ka. exigua, but did not reveal bands corresponding to Lb. parakefiri, Lb. kefiri, or R. kratochvilovae. Our results support the necessity of combining more techniques for detailed and reliable study of microbial communities in kefir grains. Another interesting finding confirmed that the detected dominant microbiota of kefir grains is very stable and did not change over experimental time. This finding is important to ensure consistent product quality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Vardjan
- Kele & Kele d.o.o., Laze 22a, 1370 Logatec, Slovenia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Carey CM, Kostrzynska M. Lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria attenuate the proinflammatory response in intestinal epithelial cells induced by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Can J Microbiol 2013; 59:9-17. [PMID: 23391223 DOI: 10.1139/cjm-2012-0446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a physiological response to infections and tissue injury; however, abnormal immune responses can give rise to chronic inflammation and contribute to disease progression. Various dietary components, including probiotic lactic acid bacteria and prebiotics, have the potential to modulate intestinal inflammatory responses. One factor in particular, the chemokine interleukin-8 (IL-8, CXCL-8), is one of the major mediators of the inflammatory response. The purpose of this study was to investigate modulation of the inflammatory host response induced by Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium DT104 in the presence of selected probiotics and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from human sources, dairy products, and farm animals. IL-8 gene expression and protein production in HT-29 cells were evaluated by real-time PCR and ELISA, respectively. Pre-incubation of HT-29 cells with Lactobacillus kefir IM002, Bifidobacterium adolescentis FRP 61, Bifidobacterium longum FRP 68 and FRP 69, Bifidobacterium breve FRP 334, and Leuconostoc mesenteroides IM080 significantly inhibited IL-8 secretion induced by Salmonella Typhimurium DT104. Co-culture of selected probiotics and Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 reduced IL-8 production, while potential probiotics and LAB had no effect on IL-8 secretion in HT-29 cells preincubated with Salmonella Typhimurium DT104 prior to adding probiotics. Lactobacillus kefir IM002 supernatant also significantly reduced IL-8 production. In conclusion, our study suggests that probiotic bifidobacteria and LAB modulate cytokine induction and possess anti-inflammatory properties; however, the effectiveness is strain dependent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Carey
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph Food Research Center, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada
| | - Magdalena Kostrzynska
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph Food Research Center, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Leite A, Mayo B, Rachid C, Peixoto R, Silva J, Paschoalin V, Delgado S. Assessment of the microbial diversity of Brazilian kefir grains by PCR-DGGE and pyrosequencing analysis. Food Microbiol 2012; 31:215-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2012.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2011] [Revised: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
|
33
|
Molecular characterization of lactic acid bacteria and in situ amylase expression during traditional fermentation of cereal foods. Food Microbiol 2012; 31:254-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2011] [Revised: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
34
|
Kesmen Z, Kacmaz N. Determination of Lactic Microflora of Kefir Grains and Kefir Beverage by Using Culture-Dependent and Culture-Independent Methods. J Food Sci 2011; 76:M276-83. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2011.02191.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
35
|
Guzel-Seydim ZB, Kok-Tas T, Greene AK, Seydim AC. Review: functional properties of kefir. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2011; 51:261-8. [PMID: 21390946 DOI: 10.1080/10408390903579029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Kefir is a unique cultured dairy product due to combined lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation of lactose in milk. Kefir is produced by microbial activity of "kefir grains" which have a relatively stable and specific balance of lactic acid bacteria and yeast. Due to the claimed health benefits of kefir which include reduction of lactose intolerance symptoms, stimulation of the immune system, lowering cholesterol, and antimutagenic and anticarcinogenic properties, kefir has become an important functional dairy food and consequently, research on kefir has increased in the past decade. In the following review, recent studies on the functional properties of kefir are reviewed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep B Guzel-Seydim
- Department of Food Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Cunur, Isparta, Turkey.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
Macouzet M, Lee B, Robert N. Genetic and structural comparison of linoleate isomerases from selected food-grade bacteria. J Appl Microbiol 2010; 109:2128-34. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2010.04844.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
|
37
|
Miguel MGDCP, Cardoso PG, Lago LDA, Schwan RF. Diversity of bacteria present in milk kefir grains using culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. Food Res Int 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2010.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
38
|
Macouzet M, Robert N, Lee BH. Genetic and functional aspects of linoleate isomerase in Lactobacillus acidophilus. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 87:1737-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2634-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2010] [Revised: 04/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
39
|
|
40
|
Kahala M, Mäki M, Lehtovaara A, Tapanainen JM, Katiska R, Juuruskorpi M, Juhola J, Joutsjoki V. Characterization of starter lactic acid bacteria from the Finnish fermented milk product viili. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 105:1929-38. [PMID: 19120639 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.03952.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Phenotypic and molecular methods were used to identify and compare the strain composition of three industrial dairy starters used for the manufacture of viili. METHODS AND RESULTS Preliminary differentiation was made by phenotypic methods. Genotypic differentiation was carried out using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and further characterization at strain level by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). The isolates could be assigned as acid-producing Lactococcus lactis strains of both lactis and cremoris subspecies, and aroma producers, identified as L. lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis and Leuconostoc mesenteroides. PCR analysis discriminated between the lactococcal subspecies, and cluster analysis of the digestion patterns of PFGE analysis revealed different genotypes in each subspecies. Each Leuconostoc-genotype seemed to be specific to only a single starter mix. CONCLUSIONS The work proved that in addition to L. lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis and Leuc. mesenteroides subsp. cremoris, commercial viili starters of traditional origin may contain (i) only L. lactis subsp. cremoris, (ii) both L. lactis subsp. cremoris and L. lactis subsp. lactis as a minority, and - as a new discovery - (iii) only L. lactis subsp. lactis. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The results obtained give an overview of the microbial population of viili starters and can be exploited in the development of optimized starter cultures for industrial-scale manufacture of viili.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Kahala
- MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Food Research, Jokioinen, Finland.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Zhou T, Li B, Peng C, Ji BP, Chen G, Ren YL. Assessment of the Sequential Simulated Gastrointestinal Tolerance of Lactic Acid Bacteria from Kefir Grains by Response Surface Methodology. J Food Sci 2009; 74:M328-34. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3841.2009.01237.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
42
|
Mohania D, Nagpal R, Kumar M, Bhardwaj A, Yadav M, Jain S, Marotta F, Singh V, Parkash O, Yadav H. Molecular approaches for identification and characterization of lactic acid bacteria. J Dig Dis 2008; 9:190-8. [PMID: 18959589 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-2980.2008.00345.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The last few years have produced a revolution in the development of very sensitive, rapid, automated, molecular detection methods for a variety of various species of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) associated with food and dairy products. Nowadays many such strains of LAB are considered probiotics. The genome-based methods are useful in identifying bacteria as a complementary or alternative tool to phenotypical methods. Over the years, identification methodologies using primers that target different sequences, such as the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA)-encoding gene, the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer region, the 23S rRNA-encoding, recA and ldhD genes; randomly amplified polymorphic DNA, restriction fragment length polymorphism, denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, temperature gradient gel electrophoresis, amplification rDNA restriction analysis, restriction enzyme analysis, rRNA, pulse field gel electrophoresis and amplification fragment length polymorphism have played a significant role in probiotic bacteriology. Hence, the aim of this review is to provide an overview of some rapid and reliable polymerase chain reaction-based molecular methods used for identifying and differentiating closely related species and strains of LAB associated with food and industry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dheeraj Mohania
- Animal Biochemistry Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana, India
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Wang Y, Ahmed Z, Feng W, Li C, Song S. Physicochemical properties of exopolysaccharide produced by Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens ZW3 isolated from Tibet kefir. Int J Biol Macromol 2008; 43:283-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2008.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2008] [Revised: 06/21/2008] [Accepted: 06/23/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
|
44
|
de Moreno de Leblanc A, Matar C, Farnworth E, Perdigón G. Study of immune cells involved in the antitumor effect of kefir in a murine breast cancer model. J Dairy Sci 2008; 90:1920-8. [PMID: 17369232 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2006-079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Administration of kefir and a kefir cell-free fraction (KF) to mice injected with breast tumor cells produced, locally in the mammary gland, different profiles of cells secreting cytokines. Here, the immune cell populations in mammary glands affected by the cyclic consumption of kefir or KF for 2 or 7 d were evaluated using a breast tumor model. Apoptosis was also assayed as another mechanism involved in tumor growth delay. The rate development of tumor cells, IgA(+) cells, and CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes was monitored in mammary gland tissues. The number of Bcl-2(+) cells in the mammary gland was compared with the apoptosis observed in the tumor. Two-day cyclical administration of both products delayed tumor growth and increased the number of IgA(+) cells in the mammary gland. Changes in the balance between CD4+ and CD8+ cells in the mammary gland were observed in mice from the group fed KF cyclically for 2 d, such that the number of CD4+ cells increased when the number of CD8+ cells remained constant. Mice that received 2-d cyclic administration of KF showed significant increases in the number of apoptotic cells and decreases in Bcl-2(+) cells in the mammary gland, compared with the tumor control group. The present study allows a better understanding of the mechanisms (immune and nonimmune) involved in the antitumor effect observed in mice administered kefir or KF. The importance of nonmicrobial components released during milk fermentation to obtain the beneficial antitumor effects is also reported.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A de Moreno de Leblanc
- Départment de Chimie-Biochimie, Université de Moncton, Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada E1A 3E9
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
Abstract
As the health benefits of ingesting live bacteria become more evident, foods are now being produced that contain probiotic bacteria. The data to support label health claims for probiotic products are often difficult to provide. The experimental evidence to identify probiotic microorganisms and to demonstrate their efficacy in clinical trials is more challenging than for other potential functional foods because effects are mediated by living microorganisms and may therefore be influenced by the status of these microorganisms. Clinical trials to show efficacy are expensive. Obtaining appropriate samples is difficult. A scientific consensus is building to support the claim that the ingestion of certain probiotic bacteria reduces lactose intolerance and can reduce the duration of rotavirus diarrheas. Some probiotic bacteria have "generally accepted as safe" status; proof of the safety of any probiotic is essential. Japanese health regulatory officials, using their Foods for Specific Health Use system, have approved human health claims for over 20 probiotic products. On the other hand, at this time, no probiotic product is sold in Canada that carries a label health claim. This illustrates the considerable discrepancies across countries in perception of health effects of probiotics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edward R Farnworth
- Food Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saint Hyacinthe, QC, Canada.
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Microbiological study of lactic acid bacteria in kefir grains by culture-dependent and culture-independent methods. Food Microbiol 2008; 25:492-501. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2008.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Revised: 01/09/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
|