Intellectual modifying a bare glassy carbon electrode to fabricate a novel and ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor: Application to determination of acrylamide in food samples

Advancements in Chemical and Biosensors for Point-of-Care Detection of Acrylamide

Acrylamide (AA), an odorless and colorless organic small-molecule compound found generally in thermally processed foods, possesses potential carcinogenic, neurotoxic, reproductive, and developmental toxicity. Compared with conventional methods for AA detection, bio/chemical sensors have attracted much interest in recent years owing to their reliability, sensitivity, selectivity, convenience, and low cost. This paper provides a comprehensive review of bio/chemical sensors utilized for the detection of AA over the past decade. Specifically, the content is concluded and systematically organized from the perspective of the sensing mechanism, state of selectivity, linear range, detection limits, and robustness. Subsequently, an analysis of the strengths and limitations of diverse analytical technologies ensues, contributing to a thorough discussion about the potential developments in point-of-care (POC) for AA detection in thermally processed foods at the conclusion of this review.

Acrylamide in food products and the role of electrochemical biosensors in its detection: a comprehensive review

In this review, the mechanisms of acrylamide formation in food, along with aspects related to its toxicity and associated consumption risks, are investigated, highlighting the potential impact on human health. European regulations regarding acrylamide content in food products are also addressed, emphasizing the importance of monitoring and detecting this substance in nutrition, by public health protection measures. The primary objective of the research is to explore and analyze innovative methods for detecting acrylamide in food, with a particular focus on electrochemical biosensors. This research direction is motivated by the need to develop rapid, sensitive, and efficient monitoring techniques for this toxic compound in food products, considering the associated consumption risks. The research has revealed several significant results. Studies have shown that electrochemical biosensors based on hemoglobin exhibited increased sensitivity and low detection limits, capable of detecting very low concentrations of acrylamide in processed foods. Additionally, it has been found that the use of functionalized nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes and gold nanoparticles, has led to the improvement of electrochemical biosensor performance in acrylamide detection. The integration of these technological innovations and functionalization strategies has enhanced the sensitivity, specificity, and stability of biosensors in measuring acrylamides. Thus, the results of this research offer promising perspectives for the development of precise and efficient methods for monitoring acrylamides in food, contributing to the improvement of food quality control and the protection of consumer health.

Toxicity, formation, contamination, determination and mitigation of acrylamide in thermally processed plant-based foods and herbal medicines: A review

Thermal processing is one of the important techniques for most of the plant-based food and herb medicines before consumption and application in order to meet the specific requirement. The plant and herbs are rich in amino acids and reducing sugars, and thermal processing may lead to Maillard reaction, resulting as a high risk of acrylamide pollution. Acrylamide, an organic pollutant that can be absorbed by the body through the respiratory tract, digestive tract, skin and mucous membranes, has potential carcinogenicity, neurological, genetic, reproductive and developmental toxicity. Therefore, it is significant to conduct pollution determination and risk assessment for quality assurance and security of medication. This review demonstrates state-of-the-art research of acrylamide focusing on the toxicity, formation, contamination, determination, and mitigation in taking food and herb medicine, to provide reference for scientific processing and ensure the security of consumers.

A highly parallel DTT/MB-DNA/Au electrochemical biosensor for trace Hg monitoring by using configuration occupation approach and SECM

Environmental pollution and medicine safety have aroused increasing public concerns due to human health. Amongst various contaminants, mercury is of special attention owing to their environmental persistence and biogeochemical recycling and ecological risks. Herein, a simple and highly parallel electrochemical biosensor for Hg determination was designed and investigated. The proposed biosensor was prepared and compared between (1) DTT/MB-DNA/Au with configuration occupation approach and (2) MCH/MB-DNA/Au with passivation approach. According to the combined results of scanning electrochemical microscope (SECM) and Randles-Sevcik equation, the DTT modified electrode exhibited high uniformity on DNA distribution and superb stability on electron transfer in Hg2+ detection. Evidentially, the response value of proposed DTT/MB-DNA/Au was increased from 57.518% to 97.607%, while RSD% between duplicate runs had dropped from 22.658% to 0.223% (n = 3). Moreover, the increased proportion of effective working area was 467.380% compared with general sensors. Besides, DTT concentration, DNA concentration as well as assembly time were optimized, utilizing electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), Cyclic Voltammetry (CV) and Square Wave Anode Stripping Voltammetry (SWASV). This optimized biosensor exhibited an excellent selectivity toward Hg2+ over Cu2+, As2+, Cd2+, Pb2+, Cr3+, Ni2+ and Zn2+ etc., and the stability of DTT/MB-DNA/Au were at least two times better even after 3 days under room temperature. Also, a linear relation was observed between the peak current and Hg2+concentrations in a range from 0.25 nM to 2.00 μM with a detection limit of 53.00 pM under optimal conditions. Finally, DTT/MB-DNA/Au was applied for plants and medical products analysis. In all, this optimized DTT/MB-DNA/Au with advantages of high repeatability and sensitivity would provide a new insight into the design and application of biosensor for reliable sensing in safeguarding plant protection and medicinal safety.

Nanomaterials Enabled and Bio/Chemical Analytical Sensors for Acrylamide Detection in Thermally Processed Foods: Advances and Outlook

Acrylamide, a food processing contaminant with demonstrated genotoxicity, carcinogenicity, and reproductive toxicity, is largely present in numerous prominent and commonly consumed food products that are produced by thermal processing methods. Food regulatory bodies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (U.S. FDA) and European Union Commission regulations have disseminated various acrylamide mitigation strategies in food processing practices. Hence, in the wake of such food and public health safety efforts, there is a rising demand for economic, rapid, and portable detection and quantification methods for these contaminants. Since conventional quantification techniques like liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) methods are expensive and have many drawbacks, sensing platforms with various transduction systems have become an efficient alternative tool for quantifying various target molecules in a wide variety of food samples. Therefore, this present review discusses in detail the state of robust, nanomaterials-based and other bio/chemical sensor fabrication techniques, the sensing mechanism, and the selective qualitative and quantitative measurement of acrylamide in various food materials. The discussed sensors use analytical measurements ranging from diverse and disparate optical, electrochemical, as well as piezoelectric methods. Further, discussions about challenges and also the potential development of the lab-on-chip applications for acrylamide detection and quantification are entailed at the end of this review.

Poly(methylene blue)-Based Electrochemical Platform for Label-Free Sensing of Acrylamide

The present work reports the electrochemical sensing of acrylamide (AM) using a poly(methylene blue)-modified glassy carbon electrode (PMB/GCE) where PMB functions as an electrochemical reporter. PMB was prepared by electrochemical polymerization of methylene blue. Electrochemical sensing of AM was facilitated by the interaction between AM and PMB. Further the interaction between AM and PMB was investigated using ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy and Raman analysis. The surface morphology was confirmed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) analyses. PMB/GCE was further characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and the electrochemical performance was assessed using cyclic voltammetry and differential pulse voltammetry. Cyclic voltammetry analysis showed a decrease in current at the redox center of PMB upon addition of AM. The association constant and binding number of AM with PMB/GCE were calculated using differential pulse voltammetry and found to be 8.9 × 10⁶ M^-1 and 0.64 (∼1), respectively. The results indicated a strong interaction of AM on the PMB/GCE surface. Further, chronocoulometry analysis of PMB/GCE in the presence of AM showed a decrease in charge due to the interaction of AM with PMB. Under optimized conditions, PMB/GCE exhibited a decrease in current proportional to the concentration of AM in the range of 0.025-16 μM with sensitivity and detection limit 0.252 μA nM^-1 and 0.13 nM, respectively. Real sample analysis was carried out by the standard addition method using the solution extracted from potato chips.

Review of Research into the Determination of Acrylamide in Foods

Acrylamide (AA) is produced by high-temperature processing of high carbohydrate foods, such as frying and baking, and has been proved to be carcinogenic. Because of its potential carcinogenicity, it is very important to detect the content of AA in foods. In this paper, the conventional instrumental analysis methods of AA in food and the new rapid immunoassay and sensor detection are reviewed, and the advantages and disadvantages of various analysis technologies are compared, in order to provide new ideas for the development of more efficient and practical analysis methods and detection equipment.

A dual-responsive biosensor for blood lead detection

Simple and accurate detection of trace heavy metals in blood is very important. A novel dual-responsive electrochemical/fluorescent biosensor based on magnetic hyperbranched polyamide with heparin modification (MHPAM-H) for blood lead detection has been successfully developed. Upon conjugated with blood lead ions, dual-biosensor could not only display electrochemical signal but also fluorescence signal owing to the enriched amino groups, cavity structure, and good fluorescence properties of HPAM. Blood biocompatibility, construction of the dual-responsive biosensor, electrochemical/fluorescent detection of lead ions in water phase and blood condition, selectivity and stability of the dual-responsive biosensor were investigated in detail. The proposed dual-responsive biosensor displays good linear relationship (1.5 pM- 4.8 × 10³ pM for electrochemical detection and 0.5 pM-4.8 × 10³ pM for fluorescent detection) with low detection limit (4.4 pM for electrochemical detection and 1.0 pM for fluorescent detection) for blood lead, providing potential application for blood lead detection in the future.

Thiol-ene Click Derivatization for the Determination of Acrylamide in Potato Products by Capillary Electrophoresis with Capacitively Coupled Contactless Conductivity Detection

The development of analytical methods for acrylamide formed during food processing is of great significance for food safety, but limited by its inherent characteristics, the analysis of acrylamide is a continuing challenge. In this study, an efficient derivatization strategy for acrylamide based on thiol-ene click reaction with cysteine as derivatization reagent was proposed, and the resulting derivative was then analyzed by capillary electrophoresis with capacitively coupled contactless conductivity detection (CE-C⁴D). After systematic investigation including catalyst dosage (0-20 mM), reaction temperature (30-90 °C) and time (1-60 min), and cysteine concentration (0.2-3.6 mM), acrylamide could be efficiently labeled by 2.0 mM cysteine at 70 °C for 10 min using 4 mM n-butylamine as catalyst. Application of 10 mM triethylamine as separation buffer, the labeled acrylamide was analyzed within 2.0 min, and the relative standard deviations of migration time and peak area were less than 0.84% and 5.6%, indicating good precision. The C⁴D signal of acrylamide derivative showed a good linear relationship with acrylamide concentration in the range of 7-200 μM with the correlation coefficient of 0.9991. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were calculated to be 0.16 μM and 0.52 μM, respectively. Assisted further by the QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) sample pretreatment, the developed derivatization strategy and subsequent CE-C⁴D method were successfully applied for the determination of acrylamide in potato products.

Fabrication of a novel impedimetric biosensor for label free detection of DNA damage induced by doxorubicin

In this work, a novel impedimetric biosensor has been fabricated for detection of DNA damage induced by doxorubicin (DX). Cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) is required for electron transfer from nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) to cytochrome P450 (CP450) which causes DX to undergo a one-electron reduction of the p-quinone residue to form the semiquinone radical resulting in the generation of free hydroxyl radical which causes DNA damage. After modification of bare glassy carbon electrode (GCE) with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) and chitosan (Ch), CPR and CP450 were co-immobilized onto the surface of Ch/MWCNTs/GCE by cross-linking CPR, CP450 and Ch through addition of glutaraldehyde. Then, the DNA was assembled onto the surface of CPRCP450/Ch/MWCNTs/GCE to fabricate the biosensor (DNA/CPRCP450/Ch/MWCNTs/GCE). Modifications applied to the bare GCE to fabricate the biosensor were characterized by CV, EIS and SEM. The DNA/CPRCP450/Ch/MWCNTs/GCE was treated in the damaging solution (DX + NADPH) which caused a significant DNA damage and the exposed DNA bases reduced the electrostatic repulsion of the negatively charged redox probe leading to Faradaic impedance changes. Performance of the biosensor for detection of DNA damage in the presence of Spinach extract was also examined and finally, an indirect impedimetric method was developed for determination of DX.

Simultaneous co-immobilization of three enzymes onto a modified glassy carbon electrode to fabricate a high-performance amperometric biosensor for determination of total cholesterol

In this work, we have fabricated a novel amperometric cholesterol (CHO) biosensor because of the importance of determination of CHO levels in blood which is an important parameter for diagnosis and prevention of disease. To achieve this goal, cholesterol oxidase, cholesterol esterase and horseradish peroxidase were simultaneously co-immobilized onto a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) modified with gold nanoparticles/chitin-ionic liquid/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxypyrrole)/graphene-multiwalled carbon nanotubes-1,1'-ferrocenedicarboxylic acid-ionic liquid. Modifications applied to the bare GCE were characterized by cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The biosensor detected CHO in linear ranges of 0.1-25 μM and 25-950 μM with a detection limit of 0.07 μM. The sensitivity of the biosensor was estimated to be 6.6 μA μM^-1 cm^-2, its response time was <5 s and Michaelis-Menten constant was calculated to be 0.12 μM. Results obtained in this study revealed that the biosensor was selective, sensitive, stable, repeatable and reproducible. Finally, the biosensor was successfully applied to the determination of CHO levels in rats plasma.

Fabrication of a novel enzymatic electrochemical biosensor for determination of tyrosine in some food samples

In this work, fabrication of a novel and ultrasensitive electrochemical biosensor based on immobilization of tyrosine hydroxylase onto palladium-platinum bimetallic alloy nanoparticles/chitosan-1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl) imide/graphene-multiwalled carbon nanotubes-IL/glassy carbon electrode for determination of L-tyrosine in some high tyrosine foods including cheese, egg and yogurt was reported. Immobilization of tyrosine hydroxylase onto the surface of the biosensor was performed by cross-linking tyrosine hydroxylase and chitosan through the addition of glutaraldehyde. Enzymatic biosensors employ the affinity and selectivity of catalytically active proteins towards their target molecules and here, the tyrosine hydroxylase selectively catalyzes the conversion of tyrosine to levodopa which can be oxidized at lower potentials than tyrosine. The modifications were characterized by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopic and scanning electron microscopy. Under optimal conditions, the biosensor detected tyrosine in concentration ranges of 0.01 × 10^-9 to 8.0 × 10^-9 mol L^-1 and 8.0 × 10^-9 to 160.0 × 10^-9 mol L^-1 with a limit of detection of 0.009 × 10^-9 mol L^-1. The biosensor was able to selective determination of tyrosine even in the presence of common interferents therefore, the biosensor was highly selective. The biosensor also showed good operational stability, antifouling properties, sensitivity, repeatability and reproducibility.