Evaluation of sampling adsorbents and validation of a LC-HRMS method for determination of 28 airborne pesticides

Assessing pesticides in the atmosphere: A global study on pollution, human health effects, monitoring network and regulatory performance

Pesticides are widely used in agriculture, but their impact on the environment and human health is a major concern. While much attention has been given to their presence in soil, water, and food, there have been few studies on airborne pesticide pollution on a global scale. This study aimed to assess the extent of atmospheric pesticide pollution in countries worldwide and identify regional differences using a scoring approach. In addition to analyzing the health risks associated with pesticide pollution, we also examined agricultural practices and current air quality standards for pesticides in these countries. The pollution scores varied significantly among the countries, particularly in Europe. Asian and Oceanic countries generally had higher scores compared to those in the Americas, suggesting a relatively higher level of air pollution caused by pesticides in these regions. It is worth noting that the current pollution levels, as assessed theoretically, pose minimal health risks to humans. However, studies in the literature have shown that excessive exposure to pesticides present in the atmosphere has been associated with various health problems, such as cancer, neuropsychiatric disorders, and other chronic diseases. Interestingly, European countries had the highest overall pesticide application intensities, but this did not necessarily correspond to higher atmospheric pesticide pollution scores. Only a few countries have established air quality standards specifically for pesticides. Furthermore, pollution scores across states in the USA were investigated and the global sampling sites were mapped. The findings revealed that the scores varied widely in the USA and the current sampling sites were limited or unevenly distributed in some countries, particularly the Nordic countries. These findings can help global relevant environmental agencies to set up comprehensive monitoring networks. Overall, the present research highlights the need to create a pesticide monitoring system and increase efforts to enhance pesticide regulation, ensure consistency in standards, and promote international cooperation.

Widespread Pesticide Distribution in the European Atmosphere Questions their Degradability in Air

Risk assessment of pesticide impacts on remote ecosystems makes use of model-estimated degradation in air. Recent studies suggest these degradation rates to be overestimated, questioning current pesticide regulation. Here, we investigated the concentrations of 76 pesticides in Europe at 29 rural, coastal, mountain, and polar sites during the agricultural application season. Overall, 58 pesticides were observed in the European atmosphere. Low spatial variation of 7 pesticides suggests continental-scale atmospheric dispersal. Based on concentrations in free tropospheric air and at Arctic sites, 22 pesticides were identified to be prone to long-range atmospheric transport, which included 15 substances approved for agricultural use in Europe and 7 banned ones. Comparison between concentrations at remote sites and those found at pesticide source areas suggests long atmospheric lifetimes of atrazine, cyprodinil, spiroxamine, tebuconazole, terbuthylazine, and thiacloprid. In general, our findings suggest that atmospheric transport and persistence of pesticides have been underestimated and that their risk assessment needs to be improved.

Airborne Pesticides-Deep Diving into Sampling and Analysis

The escalating utilization of pesticides has led to pronounced environmental contamination, posing a significant threat to agroecosystems. The extensive and persistent global application of these chemicals has been linked to a spectrum of acute and chronic human health concerns. This review paper focuses on the concentrations of airborne pesticides in both indoor and outdoor environments. The collection of diverse pesticide compounds from the atmosphere is examined, with a particular emphasis on active and passive air sampling techniques. Furthermore, a critical evaluation is conducted on the methodologies employed for the extraction and subsequent quantification of airborne pesticides. This analysis takes into consideration the complexities involved in ensuring accurate measurements, highlighting the advancements and limitations of current practices. By synthesizing these aspects, this review aims to foster a more comprehensive and informed comprehension of the intricate dynamics related to the presence and measurement of airborne pesticides. This, in turn, is poised to significantly contribute to the refinement of environmental monitoring strategies and the augmentation of precise risk assessments.

Review of Characteristics and Analytical Methods for Determination of Thiabendazole

Thiabendazole (TBZ) is a fungicide and anthelmintic drug commonly found in food products. Due to its toxicity and potential carcinogenicity, its determination in various samples is important for public health. Different analytical methods can be used to determine the presence and concentration of TBZ in samples. Liquid chromatography (LC) and its subtypes, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC), are the most commonly used methods for TBZ determination representing 19%, 18%, and 18% of the described methods, respectively. Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) and fluorimetry are two more methods widely used for TBZ determination, representing 13% and 12% of the described methods, respectively. In this review, a number of methods for TBZ determination are described, but due to their limitations, there is a high potential for the further improvement and development of each method in order to obtain a simple, precise, and accurate method that can be used for routine analysis.

Current use pesticides in soil and air from two agricultural sites in South Africa: Implications for environmental fate and human exposure

Concerns about the possible negative impacts of current use pesticides (CUPs) for both the environment and human health have increased worldwide. However, the knowledge on the occurrence of CUPs in soil and air and the related human exposure in Africa is limited. This study investigated the presence of 30 CUPs in soil and air at two distinct agricultural sites in South Africa and estimated the human exposure and related risks to rural residents via soil ingestion and inhalation (using hazard quotients, hazard index and relative potency factors). We collected 12 soil and 14 air samples over seven days during the main pesticide application season in 2018. All samples were extracted, purified and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. In soils, nine CUPs were found, with chlorpyrifos, carbaryl and tebuconazole having the highest concentrations (up to 63.6, 1.10 and 0.212 ng g^-1, respectively). In air, 16 CUPs were found, with carbaryl, tebuconazole and terbuthylazine having the highest levels (up to 25.0, 22.2 and 1.94 pg m^-3, respectively). Spatial differences were observed between the two sites for seven CUPs in air and two in soils. A large dominance towards the particulate phase was found for almost all CUPs, which could be related to mass transport kinetics limitations (non-equilibrium) following pesticide application. The estimated daily intake via soil ingestion and inhalation of individual pesticides ranged from 0.126 fg kg^-1 day^-1 (isoproturon) to 14.7 ng kg^-1 day^-1 (chlorpyrifos). Except for chlorpyrifos, soil ingestion generally represented a minor exposure pathway compared to inhalation (i.e. <5%). The pesticide environmental exposure largely differed between the residents of the two distinct agricultural sites in terms of levels and composition. The estimated human health risks due to soil ingestion and inhalation of pesticides were negligible although future studies should explore other relevant pathways.

Evaluation of an alternative sorbent for passive sampling of the herbicides 2,4-D and Dicamba in the air

The present study aimed to evaluate the Strata-X^® sorbent, commonly used in cartridges, through analysis by high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Due to the different physical-chemical characteristics of the compounds, different conditions of chromatography and mass analysis were necessary. The developed methods were validated in terms of selectivity, linear range, linearity (coefficient of determination, r²), the limit of detection (LOD), the limit of quantification (LOQ), accuracy (recovery, %), and precision (RSD, %). The results allowed us to select efficient extraction methods, using methanol acidified to pH 2 with formic acid, to elute the herbicides 2,4-D and dicamba in both sorbent materials. Besides, the Strata-X^® sorbent was efficient in the sorption of analytes; thus, we indicate it for potential use in air sampling as an alternative to XAD-2.

Mobility and environmental monitoring of pesticides in the atmosphere - a review

Knowledge of the partition mechanisms in the agrochemical environment is fundamental for understanding their behavior within an ecosystem and mitigating possible adverse effects of these products. In this review, the objective was to present the main transport mechanisms, physical-chemical properties, and atmospheric monitoring methodologies of the most diverse types of agrochemicals used in agriculture that can reach the atmosphere and affect different compartments. It has been verified that volatilization is one of more considerable significance of the various forms of transport since a significant part of the applied pesticides can volatilize in a few days. As for monitoring these compounds in the atmosphere, both passive and active sampling have their advantages and disadvantages. Passive samplers allow sampling in large quantities and at remote locations, in addition to making continuous measurements, while active samplers have the advantage of being able to detect low concentrations and continuously. Since a significant portion of the applied pesticides is directed to the atmosphere, monitoring makes it possible to understand some properties of the pesticides present in the air. This monitoring can be done from different existing methodologies based on adopted criteria and existing technical standards. Graphical representation of mobility and environmental monitoring of atmospheric pollutants from pesticides.

A strategy for intelligent chemical profiling-guided precise quantitation of multi-components in traditional Chinese medicine formulae-QiangHuoShengShi decoction

Due to the tremendous clinical value, more and more Traditional Chinese Medicines (TCMs) and their formulae are attracted by world's attention. QiangHuoShengShi (QHSS) decoction is one of classic TCM formulae, which is clinically used for treating various rheumatic diseases. However, the phytochemical constituents of QHSS have rarely been reported. A simple, intelligent, and comprehensive strategy was developed to characterize the phytochemical-fingerprint and quantify the chemical-markers for precise quality evaluation of QHSS. Firstly, a new deep-learning assisted mass defect filter (MDF) method was built for rapid and accurate classification of mass spectrum (MS) ions acquired by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time of flight tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS). Subsequently, herb species-specific chemical-category and characteristic identification were used for further characterization of multi-components. As the result, seven major types of compounds in QHSS were intelligently differentiated and 183 phytochemical compounds were tentatively identified. Finally, a sensitive scheduled multiple reaction monitoring (sMRM) detection method was applied to precisely quantify 37 target analytes in QHSS decoction. This integrated strategy would provide an alternative method for chemical-material basis study of more herbal medicine or natural products.

Quantification and risk assessment of pesticides in southern Brazilian air samples using low-volume sampling and rapid ultrasound-assisted extraction

Brazil is one of the largest pesticide consumers in the world. In the last few years, the use of permissive environmental laws and newly authorized pesticide formulations has been enlarged. Thus, the intensive and inadequate use of pesticides may present a risk to human health since these compounds may move between environmental compartments. Outdoor air samples were collected using low-volume samplers at Arapongas city in the state of Paraná, Brazil, between February and November of 2017. Polyurethane foam (PUF) cartridges were presented as a good choice to collect pesticides from atmospheric gas phase samples when compared to styrene-divinylbenzene (XAD-2). Lower limits of quantitation were obtained with PUF cartridges, which allowed a greater number of samples to be quantified in PUF than in XAD-2. Atrazine and trifluralin were quantified for the first time in Brazilian air samples. The levels of concentration ranged between 192-1731 pg m^-3 (chlorpyrifos), 136-1345 pg m^-3 (atrazine) and 184-1189 pg m^-3 (trifluralin). Alachlor has been out of market in Brazil since 2013, and thus it was not detected in any gas phase sample. The highest daily inhalation exposure was observed in infants, 1 × 10^-6 mg kg^-1 d^-1 for atrazine, chlorpyrifos and trifluralin. None of the analyzed pesticides were associated with a hazardous quotient (HQ) > 1, considering the worst-case scenario for infants, indicating that there is no risk associated with the exposed population. Cancer risk assessment for trifluralin resulted in values below 1 × 10^-6, therefore not indicating any significant risk to human health.

Customized dispersive micro-solid-phase extraction device combined with micro-desorption for the simultaneous determination of 39 multiclass pesticides in environmental water samples

A dispersive micro-solid phase extraction (d-µ-SPE) procedure was developed for the simultaneous extraction of 39 multiclass pesticides, containing a variety of chemical groups (organophosphate, organochlorine, pyrethroid, strobilurin, thiocarbamate, triazole, imidazole, and triazine), from water samples. A customized d-µ-SPE glass device was combined with a multi-tube platform vortex and a micro-desorption unit (Whatman Mini-UniPrep G2 syringeless filter), which allowed the unique simultaneous desorption, extract filtration, and injection. A simplex-centroid mixture design and Doehlert design were employed to optimize the extraction conditions. The optimized extraction conditions consisted of an extraction time of 30 min, an addition of 6.74 % of NaCl into 100 mL of water sample, and a desorption time of 24 min with 500 µL of EtAc. The procedure provided a low limit of detection (LOD), ranging from 0.51 ng L^-1 (4,4-DDE) to 22.4 ng L^-1 (dimethoate), and an enrichment factor ranging from 72.5 (dimethoate) to 200 (tebuconazole). The relative recoveries of the pesticides from spiked freshwater and seawater ranged from 74.2 % (endrin) to 123 % (molinate). The proposed procedure was applied to detect the presence of multiclass pesticides in environmental water samples. Three pesticides commonly applied in Brazil, namely, malathion, dimethoate, and lambda-cyhalothrin, were detected in concentrations ranging from <LOD to 120 ng L^-1 (dimethoate).