1
|
Valdez CA, Rosales JA, Vu AK, Leif RN. Detection and confirmation of fentanyls in high clay-content soil by electron ionization gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:2138-2152. [PMID: 37568257 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023]
Abstract
Detection of illicit drugs in the environment, particularly in soils, often suggests the present or past location of a clandestine production center for these substances. Thus, development of efficient methods for the analysis and detection of these chemicals is of paramount importance in the field of chemical forensics. In this work, a method involving the extraction and retrospective confirmation of fentanyl, acetylfentanyl, thiofentanyl, and acetylthiofentanyl using trichloroethoxycarbonylation chemistry in a high clay-content soil is presented. The soil was spiked separately with each fentanyl at two concentrations (1 and 10 μg/g) and their extraction accomplished using ethyl acetate and aqueous NH4 OH (pH ~ 11.4) with extraction recoveries ranging from ~56% to 82% for the high-concentration (10 μg/g) samples while ranging from ~68% to 83% for the low-concentration (1 μg/g) samples. After their extraction, residues containing each fentanyl were reacted with 2,2,2-trichloroethoxycarbonyl chloride (Troc-Cl) to generate two unique and predictable products from each opioid that can be used to retrospectively confirm their presence and identity using EI-GC-MS. The method's limit of detection (MDL/LOD) for Troc-norfentanyl and Troc-noracetylfentanyl were estimated to be 29.4 and 31.8 ng/mL in the organic extracts. In addition, the method's limit of quantitation for Troc-norfentanyl and Troc-noracetylfentanyl were determined to be 88.2 and 95.5 ng/mL, respectively. Collectively, the results presented herein strengthen the use of chloroformate chemistry as an additional chemical tool to confirm the presence of these highly toxic and lethal substances in the environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Valdez
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - José A Rosales
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- NNSA-MSIIP Summer Fellow, University of Texas, El Paso, Texas, USA
| | - Alexander K Vu
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| | - Roald N Leif
- Global Security Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
- Forensic Science Center, Lawrence Livemore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Appley MG, Robinson EL, Thomson A, Russell E, Sisco E. An Analytical Platform for Near Real-Time Drug Landscape Monitoring using Paraphernalia Residues. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
|
3
|
Affiliation(s)
- David Love
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| | - Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA,70113th Street, N.W., Suite 750, Washington, DC, 20005-3967, USA,Corresponding author. RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Misawa T, Tsuji G, Kurohara T, Ito T, Yokoo H, Kawamura M, Shoda T, Hanajiri-kikura R, Demizu Y. Comprehensive Synthesis of 20 Fentanyl Derivatives for Their Rapid Differentiation by GC-MS Analysis. HETEROCYCLES 2023. [DOI: 10.3987/com-22-14760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
|
5
|
Investigations into fentanyl precursors method classification by handheld Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy combined with multivariate statistical analysis. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
|
6
|
Mörén L, Lindén P, Larsson A, Östin A. The potential of Direct Analysis in Real Time as a forensic tool for carfentanil profiling. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
7
|
Webster RL, Ovenden SPB, McDowall LJ, Dennison GH, Laws MJ, McGill NW, Williams J, Zanatta SD. Chemical forensic profiling and attribution signature determination of sarin nerve agent using GC-MS, LC-MS and NMR. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:3863-3873. [PMID: 35396608 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04027-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sarin is a highly toxic nerve agent classified by the Chemical Weapon Convention as a Schedule 1 chemical with no use other than to kill or injure. Moreover, in recent times, chemical warfare agents have been deployed against both military and civilian populations. Chemical warfare agents always contain minor impurities that can provide important chemical attribution signatures (CAS) that can aid in forensic investigations. In order to understand the trace molecular composition of sarin, various analytical approaches including GC-MS, LC-MS and NMR were used to determine the chemical markers of a set of sarin samples. Precursor materials were studied and the full characterisation of a synthetic process was undertaken in order to provide new insights into potential chemical attribution signatures for this agent. Several compounds that were identified in the precursor were also found in the sarin samples linking it to its method of preparation. The identification of these CAS contributes critical information about a synthetic route to sarin, and has potential for translation to related nerve agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Renée L Webster
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia.
| | - Simon P B Ovenden
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| | - Lyndal J McDowall
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| | - Genevieve H Dennison
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| | - Melissa J Laws
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| | - Nathan W McGill
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| | - Jilliarne Williams
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| | - Shannon D Zanatta
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer St, Fishermans Bend, VIC, 3207, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rautio T, Thornell J, Gréen H, Konradsson P, Dahlén J, Wu X. An improved procedure for the synthesis of fourteen 4-OH and 3-MeO-4OH metabolites of fentanyl analogues from two intermediates on multi-gram scale. SYNTHETIC COMMUN 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00397911.2022.2026396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Rautio
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Jonathan Thornell
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Henrik Gréen
- Department of Forensic Genetics and Forensic Toxicology, National Board of Forensic Medicine, Linköping, Sweden
- Division of Clinical Chemistry and Pharmacology, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Peter Konradsson
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Johan Dahlén
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Xiongyu Wu
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Biology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Classification of carfentanil synthesis methods based on chemical impurity profile. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
|
10
|
Sisco E, Burns A, Moorthy A. Development and evaluation of a synthetic opioid targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) method. J Forensic Sci 2021; 66:2369-2380. [PMID: 34459514 PMCID: PMC9922096 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
As seized drug casework becomes increasingly complex due to the continued prevalence of emerging drugs, laboratories are often looking for new analytical approaches including developing methods for the analysis of specific compounds classes. Recent efforts have focused on the development of targeted gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) confirmation methods to compliment the information-rich screening results produced by techniques like direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS). In this work, a method for the confirmation of synthetic opioids and related compounds was developed and evaluated. An 11-component test solution was used to develop a method that focused on minimizing overlapping retention time acceptance windows and understanding the influence of instrument parameters on reproducibility and sensitivity. Investigated settings included column type, flow rate, temperature program, inlet temperature, source temperature, and tune type. Using a DB-200 column, a 35-min temperature ramped method was created. It was evaluated against a suite of 222 synthetic opioids and related compounds, and successfully differentiated all but four compound pairs based on nonoverlapping retention time acceptance windows or objectively different mass spectra. Compared to a general confirmatory method used in casework, the targeted method was up to 25 times more sensitive and provided at least a two-fold increase in retention time differences. Analysis of extracts from actual case samples successfully demonstrated utility of the method and showed no instance of carryover, although the high polarity column required wider retention time windows than other columns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Amber Burns
- Maryland State Police Forensic Sciences Division
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Chemical profiling of dispersed fentanyl analogues sampled from indoor surfaces using multivariate data classification to determine synthesis methods. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
|
12
|
de Bruin-Hoegée M, Kleiweg D, Noort D, van Asten AC. Chemical attribution of fentanyl: The effect of human metabolism. Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
|
13
|
Valdez CA. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Synthetic Opioids Belonging to the Fentanyl Class: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2021; 52:1938-1968. [PMID: 34053394 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2021.1927668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The rising number of deaths caused by fentanyl overdosing in the US due to the overwhelming illicit use of this synthetic opioid has started a global campaign to develop efficient ways to control its production and distribution as well as discovering efficient antidotes to mitigate its lethal effects. Another important vein of focused research established by various agencies lies in the development of efficient and practical protocols for the detection of this opioid and analogs thereof in various matrices, whether environmental or biological in nature, particularly in the field of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The following review will cover the literature dealing with the detection and identification of synthetic opioids belonging to the fentanyl class by GC-MS means and hyphenated versions of the technique. Detailed descriptions will be given for the GC-MS methods employed for the analysis of the opioid, starting with the nature of the extraction protocol employed prior to analysis to the actual findings presented by the cited reports. Great effort has gone into describing the methods involved in each paper in a detailed manner and these have been compiled by year in tables at the end of each section for the reader's convenience. Lastly, the review will end with concluding remarks about the state of GC-MS analysis with regards to these powerful opioids and what lies ahead for this analytical field.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Valdez
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Forensic Science Center, Livermore, California, USA.,Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA.,Nuclear and Chemical Sciences Division, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California, USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Hemme M, Fidder A, van der Riet-van Oeveren D, van der Schans MJ, Noort D. Mass spectrometric analysis of adducts of sulfur mustard analogues to human plasma proteins: approach towards chemical provenancing in biomedical samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2021; 413:4023-4036. [PMID: 33903945 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-021-03354-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The primary aim of this study was to identify biomarkers of exposure to some so-called Schedule 1 sulfur mustard (HD) analogues, in order to facilitate and expedite their retrospective analysis in case of alleged use of such compounds. Since these HD analogues can be regarded as model compounds for possible impurities of HD formed during synthesis processes, the secondary aim was to explore to which extent these biomarkers can be used for chemical provenancing of HD in case biomedical samples are available. While the use of chemical attribution signatures (CAS) for neat chemicals or for environmental samples has been addressed quite frequently, the use of CAS for investigating impurities in biomedical samples has been addressed only scarcely. Human plasma was exposed to each of the five HD analogues. After pronase or proteinase K digestion of precipitated protein and sample work-up, the histidine (His) and tripeptide (CPF) adducts to proteins were analyzed, respectively. Adducts of the analogues could still be unambiguously identified next to the main HD adducts in processed plasma samples after exposure to HD mixed with each of the analogues, at a 1% level relative to HD. In conclusion, we have identified plasma protein adducts of a number of HD analogues, which can be used as biomarkers to assess an exposure to these Schedule 1 chemicals. We have shown that adducts of these analogues can still be analyzed after work-up of plasma samples which had been exposed to these analogues in a mixture with HD, supporting the hypothesis that biomedical sample analysis might be useful for chemical provenancing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Hemme
- Chemistry Department, University of Hamburg, Martin-Luther-King-Platz 6, 20146, Hamburg, Germany.,Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.,Bundeswehr Research Institute for Protective Technologies and NBC Protection (WIS), Humboldtstraße, 29633, Munster, Germany
| | - Alex Fidder
- Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marcel J van der Schans
- Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands
| | - Daan Noort
- Department of CBRN Protection, TNO Defence, Safety & Security, P.O. Box 45, 2280 AA, Rijswijk, The Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Vandeputte MM, Krotulski AJ, Hulpia F, Van Calenbergh S, Stove CP. Phenethyl-4-ANPP: a Marginally Active Byproduct Suggesting a Switch in Illicit Fentanyl Synthesis Routes. J Anal Toxicol 2021; 46:350-357. [PMID: 33822084 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Profiling of the illicit fentanyl supply is invaluable from surveillance and intelligence perspectives. An important strategy includes the study of chemical attribution signatures (e.g. trace amounts of synthesis precursors, impurities/byproducts in seized material, metabolites in biological samples). This information provides valuable insight into the employed synthesis routes at the heart of illicit fentanyl manufacture (previously mainly the so-called Janssen or Siegfried methods), allowing to track and ultimately regulate crucial precursors. This report focuses on phenethyl-4-ANPP, a formerly unknown compound that was identified for the first time in a fentanyl powder sample seized in April 2019, followed by its identification in a biological sample in December 2019. Between 2019-Q4 and 2020-Q3, phenethyl-4-ANPP was detected in 25/1054 fentanyl cases in the United States. There are currently no reports on how this compound may have ended up in illicit drug preparations and whether its presence may have potential in vivo relevance. We propose three possible fentanyl synthesis routes which, when badly executed in a single reaction vessel, may involve the formation of phenethyl-4-ANPP. We hypothesize that the presence of the latter is the result of a shift in fentanyl synthesis routes in an attempt to circumvent restrictions on previously used precursors. Using a cell-based µ-opioid receptor (MOR) recruitment assay, we show that the extent of MOR activation caused by 100 µM phenethyl-4-ANPP is comparable to that exerted by a roughly 100,000-fold lower concentration of fentanyl (0.001 µM or 0.336 ng/mL). Negligible in vitro opioid activity, combined with its low abundance in fentanyl preparations, most likely renders phenethyl-4-ANPP biologically irrelevant in vivo. However, as clandestine operations are constantly changing shape, monitoring of fentanyl attributions remains pivotal in our understanding and control of illicit fentanyl manufacture and supply.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marthe M Vandeputte
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Alex J Krotulski
- Center for Forensic Science Research and Education, Fredric Rieders Family Foundation, Willow Grove, PA 19090, USA
| | - Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Höjer Holmgren K, Mörén L, Ahlinder L, Larsson A, Wiktelius D, Norlin R, Åstot C. Route Determination of Sulfur Mustard Using Nontargeted Chemical Attribution Signature Screening. Anal Chem 2021; 93:4850-4858. [PMID: 33709707 PMCID: PMC8041246 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Route determination
of sulfur mustard was accomplished through
comprehensive nontargeted screening of chemical attribution signatures.
Sulfur mustard samples prepared via 11 different synthetic routes
were analyzed using gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry.
A large number of compounds were detected, and multivariate data analysis
of the mass spectrometric results enabled the discovery of route-specific
signature profiles. The performance of two supervised machine learning
algorithms for retrospective synthetic route attribution, orthogonal
partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) and random forest
(RF), were compared using external test sets. Complete classification
accuracy was achieved for test set samples (2/2 and 9/9) by using
classification models to resolve the one-step routes starting from
ethylene and the thiodiglycol chlorination methods used in the two-step
routes. Retrospective determination of initial thiodiglycol synthesis
methods in sulfur mustard samples, following chlorination, was more
difficult. Nevertheless, the large number of markers detected using
the nontargeted methodology enabled correct assignment of 5/9 test
set samples using OPLS-DA and 8/9 using RF. RF was also used to construct
an 11-class model with a total classification accuracy of 10/11. The
developed methods were further evaluated by classifying sulfur mustard
spiked into soil and textile matrix samples. Due to matrix effects
and the low spiking level (0.05% w/w), route determination was more
challenging in these cases. Nevertheless, acceptable classification
performance was achieved during external test set validation: chlorination
methods were correctly classified for 12/18 and 11/15 in spiked soil
and textile samples, respectively.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Höjer Holmgren
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| | - Lina Mörén
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| | - Linnea Ahlinder
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| | - Andreas Larsson
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| | - Daniel Wiktelius
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| | - Rikard Norlin
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| | - Crister Åstot
- Department of CBRN Defence & Security, The Swedish Defence Research Agency (FOI), Cementvägen 20, Umeå SE-901 82, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Ovenden SPB, McDowall LJ, McKeown HE, McGill NW, Jones OAH, Pearson JR, Petricevic M, Rogers ML, Rook TJ, Williams J, Webster RL, Zanatta SD. Investigating the chemical impurity profiles of fentanyl preparations and precursors to identify chemical attribution signatures for synthetic method attribution. Forensic Sci Int 2021; 321:110742. [PMID: 33647569 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2021.110742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
From an analytical chemistry standpoint, determining the chemical attribution signatures (CAS) of synthetic reaction mixtures is an impurity profiling exercise. Identifying and understanding the impurity profile and CAS of these chemical agents would allow them to be exploited for chemical forensic information, such as how a particular chemical agent was synthesised. Being able to determine the synthetic route used to make a chemical agent allows for the possibility of batches of the agent, and individual incidents using that agent, to be forensically linked. This information is of particular benefit to agencies investigating the nefarious and illicit use of chemical agents. One such chemical agent of interest to law enforcement and national security agencies is fentanyl. In this study two acylation methods for the final step of fentanyl production, herein termed the Janssen and Siegfried methods, were investigated by liquid chromatography- high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) and multivariate statistical analysis (MVA). From these data, fifty-five chemical impurities were identified. Of these, ten were specific CAS for the Janssen method, and five for the Siegfried method. Additionally, analytical data from four different literature methods for production of the fentanyl precursor 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (ANPP), were compared to the results obtained from the method of production (Valdez) used in this study. Comparison of the LC-HRMS data for these five methods allowed for four Valdez specific impurities to be identified. These may be useful CAS for the Valdez method of ANPP production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simon P B Ovenden
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia.
| | - Lyndal J McDowall
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| | - Hugh E McKeown
- Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science, School of Science, RMIT University, La Trobe Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia
| | - Nathan W McGill
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| | - Oliver A H Jones
- Australian Centre for Research on Separation Science (ACROSS), School of Science, RMIT University, Plenty Road, Bundoora, Victoria 3083, Australia
| | - James R Pearson
- Office of the Chief Forensic Scientist, Forensic Services Department, Victoria Police, Macleod, Victoria 3085, Australia; School of Molecular Sciences, College of Science, Health and Engineering, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
| | - Marija Petricevic
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| | - Michael L Rogers
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| | - Trevor J Rook
- Applied Chemistry and Environmental Science, School of Science, RMIT University, La Trobe Street, Melbourne, Victoria 3001, Australia
| | - Jilliarne Williams
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| | - Renée L Webster
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| | - Shannon D Zanatta
- Defence Science and Technology Group, 506 Lorimer Street Fishermans Bend, Victoria 3207, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Antonides LH, Cannaert A, Norman C, NicDáeid N, Sutcliffe OB, Stove CP, McKenzie C. Shape matters: The application of activity-based in vitro bioassays and chiral profiling to the pharmacological evaluation of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists in drug-infused papers seized in prisons. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:628-643. [PMID: 33161649 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) elicit many of their psychoactive effects via type-1 human cannabinoid (CB1 ) receptors. Enantiomer pairs of eight tert-leucinate or valinate indole- and indazole-3-carboxamide SCRAs were synthesized and their CB1 potency and efficacy assessed using an in vitro β-arrestin recruitment assay in a HEK239T stable cell system. A chiral high-performance liquid chromatography method with photodiode array and/or quadrupole time-of-flight-mass spectrometry detection (HPLC-PDA and HPLC-PDA-QToF-MS) was applied to 177 SCRA-infused paper samples seized in Scottish prisons between 2018 and 2020. In most samples, SCRAs were almost enantiopure (S)-enantiomer (>98% of total chromatographic peak area), although in some (n = 18), 2% to 16% of the (R)-enantiomer was detected. (S)-enantiomers are consistently more potent than (R)-enantiomers and often more efficacious. The importance of SCRA-CB1 receptor interactions in the "head" or "linked group" moiety is demonstrated, with the conformation of the "bulky" tert-leucinate group greatly affecting potency (by up to a factor of 374), significantly greater than the difference observed between valinate SCRA enantiomers. (S)-MDMB-4en-PINACA, (S)-4F-MDMB-BINACA, and (S)-5F-MDMB-PICA are currently the most prevalent SCRAs in Scottish prisons, and all have similar high potency (EC50 , 1-5 nM) and efficacy. Infused paper samples were compared using estimated intrinsic efficacy at the CB1 receptor (EIECB1 ) to evaluate samples with variable SCRA content. Given their similar potency and efficacy, any variation in CB1 receptor-mediated psychoactive effects are likely to derive from variation in dose, mode of use, pharmacokinetic differences, and individual factors affecting the user, rather than differences in the specific SCRA present.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lysbeth H Antonides
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Annelies Cannaert
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Caitlyn Norman
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Niamh NicDáeid
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| | - Oliver B Sutcliffe
- Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK
| | - Christophe P Stove
- Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Craig McKenzie
- Leverhulme Research Centre for Forensic Science, School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
McKeown HE, Rook TJ, Pearson JR, Jones OA. Classification of fentanyl precursors by multivariate analysis of low-field nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy data. Forensic Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2020.100285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|