Selective detection of enrofloxacin in biological and environmental samples using a molecularly imprinted electrochemiluminescence sensor based on functionalized copper nanoclusters

Recent Advances in Electroluminescent Metallic Nanoclusters: From Materials to Devices

Metallic nanoclusters (MNCs) were developed rapidly in recent decades, owing to their unique electronic structures and excited state characteristics, leading to their wide applications. Luminescence as one of the most important functions for MNCs has also been used to realize biodetection, displays, and lighting, through either electrochemiluminescence (ECL) or electroluminescence (EL). Both emissive properties and electrochemical activities of MNCs were utilized to enhance ECL and EL through facilitating exciton formation and radiation, rendering the rapid emerging of the latter in the last ten years. Through ligand modification, radiative excited-state components were increased to realize state-of-the-art photo- and electroluminescence efficiencies up to ∼100% and ∼30%, as well as ultralow biodetection limits. Nonetheless, material selection space and processing technologies are still limited. Herein, we overview and discuss recent advances of MNCs-based ECL and EL, through both aspects of materials/systems and devices, which would enlighten continuous innovations in optoelectronic MNCs.

Recent advances in molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for visual recognition and inhibition of α-dicarbonyl compound-mediated Maillard reaction products

α-Dicarbonyl compounds (α-DCs) are important intermediates and precursors of harmful Maillard reaction products (e.g., acrylamide and late glycosylation end-products), and they exist widely in thermoprocessed sugar- or fat-rich foods. α-DCs and their end-products are prone to accumulation in the human body and lead to the development of various chronic diseases. Therefore, detection of α-DCs and their associated hazards in food samples is crucial. This paper reviews the preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) enabling visual intelligent responses and the strategies for recognition and capture of α-DCs and their associated hazards, and provides a comprehensive summary of the development of visual MIPs, including integration strategies and applications with real food samples. The visual signal responses as well as the mechanisms for hazard recognition and capture are highlighted. Current challenges and prospects for visual MIPs with advanced applications in food, agricultural and environmental samples are also discussed. This review will open new horizons regarding visual MIPs for recognition and inhibition of hazards in food safety.

Facile electrochemiluminescence sensing platform based on Gd2O3:Eu3+ nanocrystals for organophosphorus pesticides detection in vegetable samples

In this work, europium ion-doped gadolinium trioxide nanocrystals (Gd2O3:Eu3+ NCs) were successfully synthesized and applied to construct an electrochemiluminescence (ECL) sensor. Compared with pure Gd2O3, the doping of Eu3+ ions caused enhanced ECL intensity and more stable signals. Based on the excellent ECL performance of Gd2O3:Eu3+ NCs, we constructed a new ECL sensing platform for the detection of organophosphorus pesticides (OPs). The ECL sensor showed a good linear relationship in the concentration range of 1 nM to 1 pM, with a limit of detection of 0.12 pM (S/N = 3) for dichlorvos (DDVP). In addition, the constructed ECL sensor was applied for the detection of DDVP in vegetable samples, and good recoveries were obtained. The results indicated that the ECL sensor exhibited fantastic performance properties and had good application prospects in OPs detection.

A novel electrochemical sensor based on dual-functional MMIP-CuMOFs for both target recognition and signal reporting and its application for sensing bisphenol A in milk

In this work, novel magnetic molecularly imprinted CuMOFs (MMIP-CuMOFs) were synthesized and applied to construct an electrochemical bisphenol A sensor. The constructed sensor used an electrode modified with reduced graphene oxide (RGO/GCE) as the sensing platform to improve its stability and sensitivity. The Fe3O4 nanoparticles in magnetic MOFs simplified the preparation process. Moreover, the combination of CuMOFs and molecular imprinting methodology was beneficial for improving the detection specificity, and the electroactive copper hexacyanoferrate generated by the reaction of Cu2+ in CuMOFs with potassium ferricyanide was used as the signal probe. The sensor showed a good linear relationship in the range of 0.5 to 500 nmol/L, with a low detection limit of 0.18 nmol/L. In addition, the sensor had good selectivity, repeatability (RSD = 2.59 %), and a good recovery rate for actual milk sample detection (99.8-102.49 %). This technique holds great promise for the detection of detrimental substances in food.

A molecularly imprinted polypyrrole electrochemiluminescence sensor based on a novel zinc-based metal-organic framework and chitosan for determination of enrofloxacin

Nowadays, bacterial resistance caused by the abuse of antibiotics has become a worldwide problem. In this work, a quinolone antibiotic, enrofloxacin (ENR), was rapidly monitored by combining a selective molecular imprinting polymer (MIP) with the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) method. Zn-PTC, a novel zinc-based metal-organic framework (MOF) that has a large specific surface area and ultra-high luminous efficiency, was used as the ECL luminophore. Chitosan (CHIT) was used to contact the specific surface area of molecularly imprinted polymer films and further improved the detection sensitivity. Subsequently, the molecularly imprinted polypyrrole was electropolymerized on the surface of the Zn-PTC and CHIT modified glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The specific sites that could target recombining ENR were shaped on the surface of MIP after extracting the ENR templates. The specific concentrations of ENR could be detected according to the difference in ECL intensity (ΔECL) between the eluting and rebinding of ENR. After optimization, a good linear response of ΔECL and a logarithm of specific ENR concentrations could be obtained in the range of 1.0 × 10-12-1.0 × 10-4 mol L-1, with a detection limit of 9.3 × 10-13 mol L-1 (S/N = 3). Notably, this study provided a rapid, convenient, and cheap method for the detection of ENR in actual samples.

A differential strategy to enhance the anti-interference ability of molecularly imprinted electrochemiluminescence sensor with a semi-logarithmic calibration curve

The non-specific adsorption behaviors of various interferents on the surface of a molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) are adverse for the selectivity of an MIP-based sensor, which can be overcome via a differential strategy by using the differential signal between MIP- and non-imprinted polymer (NIP)-based sensors. However, the normal differential mode is not suitable for the MIP-based sensors with non-linear calibration curves. Herein, an improved differential strategy is reported for an MIP-based sensor with a semi-logarithmic calibration curve, demonstrated by an electrochemiluminescence (ECL) sensor for dopamine (DA). Glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was modified by the mixture of g-C3N4, TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). MIP membrane for DA was fabricated on the surface of g-C3N4/TiO2NPs/CNTs/GCE using chitosan for film-forming, obtained MIP@GCE. To enhance the anti-interference ability of the MIP-based DA sensor, the difference between exponential functions ECL intensities of MIP@GCE and NIP@GCE is used as the analytical signal in the improved differential strategy. The differential signal was increased linearly with increasing DA concentration ranging from 10 pM to 0.10 μM, with the detection limit of 5.6 pM. The interference level of Cu2+ on DA determination in the improved differential mode is only 9.7% of that in the normal MIP mode. The improved differential strategy can be used in other MIP-based sensors with semi-logarithmic calibration curves.

Sensitive electrochemical detection of enrofloxacin in eggs based on carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes-reduced graphene oxide nanocomposites: Molecularlyimprintedrecognition versus direct electrocatalytic oxidation

A sensitive electrochemical method for detecting enrofloxacin was proposed using carboxylated multi-walled carbon nanotubes-reduced graphene oxide (MWCNT-COOH-RGO) nanocomposites. The MWCNT-COOH-RGO nanocomposites were firstly electrodeposited on a bare electrode, followed by electropolymerization of molecularly imprinted polymers. Enrofloxacin was determined by the mechanisms of direct electrocatalytic oxidation and molecularly imprinted recognition, respectively. Under the optimized conditions, a response range of 5.0×10^-7 M to 5.5×10^-5 M and limit of detection (LOD) of 2.3×10^-7 M were obtained by direct electrocatalytic oxidation of enrofloxacin using chronoamperometry. By contrast, the response range of 1.0×10^-10 M to 5.0×10^-5 M and LOD of 2.5×10^-11 M were achieved by molecularly imprinted recognition of enrofloxacin using square-wave voltammetry. Moreover, the proposed method exhibited good repeatability, stability and selectivity, and could be used for enrofloxacin detection in egg samples with satisfactory results.

Newly Developed Electrochemiluminescence Based on Bipolar Electrochemistry for Multiplex Biosensing Applications: A Consolidated Review

Recently, there has been an upsurge in the extent to which electrochemiluminescence (ECL) working in synergy with bipolar electrochemistry (BPE) is being applied in simple biosensing devices, especially in a clinical setup. The key objective of this particular write-up is to present a consolidated review of ECL-BPE, providing a three-dimensional perspective incorporating its strengths, weaknesses, limitations, and potential applications as a biosensing technique. The review encapsulates critical insights into the latest and novel developments in the field of ECL-BPE, including innovative electrode designs and newly developed, novel luminophores and co-reactants employed in ECL-BPE systems, along with challenges, such as optimization of the interelectrode distance, electrode miniaturization and electrode surface modification for enhancing sensitivity and selectivity. Moreover, this consolidated review will provide an overview of the latest, novel applications and advances made in this field with a bias toward multiplex biosensing based on the past five years of research. The studies reviewed herein, indicate that the technology is rapidly advancing at an outstanding purse and has an immense potential to revolutionize the general field of biosensing. This perspective aims to stimulate innovative ideas and inspire researchers alike to incorporate some elements of ECL-BPE into their studies, thereby steering this field into previously unexplored domains that may lead to unexpected, interesting discoveries. For instance, the application of ECL-BPE in other challenging and complex sample matrices such as hair for bioanalytical purposes is currently an unexplored area. Of great significance, a substantial fraction of the content in this review article is based on content from research articles published between the years 2018 and 2023.

An electrochemiluminescence sensor based on CsPbBr3 -zquantum dots and poly (3-thiophene acetic acid) cross-linked nanogold imprinted layer for the determination of benzo(a)pyrene in edible oils

A novel quench molecularly imprinted electrochemiluminescence sensor (MIECLS) based on a covalent organic framework composite (COF-300-Au) with enhanced electrochemiluminescence (ECL) signal from CsPbBr₃ quantum dots and cross-linked 3-thiopheneacetic acid functionalized AuNPs (3-TAA@AuNPs) was developed for the detection of the environmental pollutant benzo(a)pyrene (BaP). A composite material constructed of COF-300-Au with a large specific surface area served as the sensor's support substrate, providing more CsPbBr₃ and imprint recognition sites. Electropolymerization was then employed to form an AuNPs three-dimensional imprinting layer with polythiophene cross-linked using BaP as a template and 3-TAA@AuNPs as a functional monomer. A specific cross-linked imprinting recognition effect was recorded on BaP along with the quenching effect of quinones. The density functional theory (DFT) evaluation of the binding mechanism between 3-TAA@AuNPs and BaP revealed powerful MIECLS toward the detection of BaP at concentrations ranging from 10^-14 to 10^-5M, with a detection limit of as low as 4.1 × 10^-15 M.

Optical Fiber-Based Polymer Microcantilever for Chemical Sensing: A Through-Fiber Fabrication Scheme

Fiber optics offer an emerging platform for chemical and biological sensors when engineered with appropriate materials. However, the large aspect ratio makes the optical fiber a rather challenging substrate for standard microfabrication techniques. In this work, the cleaved end of an optical fiber is used as a fabrication platform for cantilever sensors based on functional polymers. The through-fiber fabrication process is triggered by photo-initiated free-radical polymerization and results in a high-aspect-ratio polymer beam in a single step. The dynamic mode application of these cantilevers is first demonstrated in air. These cantilevers are then tuned for sensing applications, including humidity and chemical sensing based on molecularly imprinted polymers.

Ultra-Sensitive MicroRNA Biosensor Based on Strong Aggregation-Induced Electrochemiluminescence from Bidentate Ligand-Stabilized Copper Nanoclusters in Polymer Hydrogel

Herein, dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA)-stabilized copper nanoclusters (Cu NCs) with high aggregation-induced electrochemiluminescence (AIECL) in polymer hydrogel were prepared to construct an ECL biosensor for detection of microRNA-21. DHLA, a small molecule ligand with two sulfhydryl groups, was used as a protective agent to synthesize Cu NCs, which improved the ECL stability and intensity of Cu NCs. Furthermore, the Cu NCs were loaded into the (PVP-PVA)hydrogel to form the DHLA-Cu NCs@(PVP-PVA)hydrogel composite, which showed effective AIECL performance. The confinement of Cu NCs into the hydrogel increased the local concentration of Cu NCs, which could not only prevent oxides from entering the copper core, but also limit the vibration to reduce non-radiative transitions of Cu NCs, leading to a distinct AIECL emission. Then, combined with the self-priming clip trigger isothermal amplification (SCTIA) technology, an ECL biosensor was constructed to realize the sensitive detection of miRNA-21. Interestingly, SCTIA technology was a simple and efficient strategy that realized multiple-cycle amplified processes to acquire a mass of output DNA, achieving remarkable signal amplification. Therefore, this strategy provided an efficient approach in the preparation of Cu NCs with high AIECL emission and target amplification technology, which might have promising potential in clinical application.

Dual-target nucleic acid sequences responsive electrochemiluminescence biosensor using single type carbon dots as probe for SARS-CoV-2 detection based on series catalytic hairpin assembly amplification

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) is rampant all over the world, and rapid and effective virus detection is the best auxiliary to curb the spread of the epidemic. A diagnosis can only be made if two or more different nucleic acid sequences are confirmed at the same time, and in most of traditional detection technologies, these target sequences have been detected separately. In this work, an electrochemiluminescent (ECL) biosensor employing a single ECL probe as signal output and responding to dual-target simultaneously is proposed for the first time. Taking the two sequences located in ORF 1ab region and N region of SARS-CoV-2 gene sequence as the model target and nitrogen doped carbon quantum dots (CDs) as ECL beacon, supplemented with catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA) reaction for signal amplification, the presented strategy has been successfully applied to the rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2. The developed SARS-CoV-2 biosensor based on the series CHA systems can realize the quantitative determination of SARS-CoV-2 in the range of 50 fM to 200 pM within 40 min. Moreover, the clinical validity of this method has been verified by the high consistency between the detection results of using this method and those using RT-qPCR for seven clinical pharyngeal swab samples.

Surface-Defect-Involved and Eye-Visible Electrochemiluminescence of Unary Copper Nanoclusters for Immunoassay

A single-stabilizer-capped strategy is proposed for achieving highly efficient and surface-defect-involved electrochemiluminescence (ECL) from unary copper nanoclusters (NCs) via employing l-cysteine (Cys) as a capping agent of luminophore. The Cys-capped CuNCs (Cys-CuNCs) can be electrochemically injected with valence band (VB) holes and exhibit eye-touchable ECL processes around +0.95 and +1.15 V upon employing TPrA as a coreactant. Both accumulated ECL spectra and spooling ECL spectra demonstrated that the two ECL processes are of the same single waveband and spectrally identical to each other with the same maximum emission wavelength of 640 nm. Promisingly, ECL of the Cys-CuNCs/TPrA system is obviously red-shifted for ∼150 nm to PL of Cys-CuNCs, indicating that the bandgap-engineered routes for ECLs of Cys-CuNCs are completely blocked. The oxidative-reduction ECL process of the Cys-CuNCs/TPrA system is a kind of highly efficient, eye-visible, and single-color emission in surface-defect-involved route. The capping agent of Cys can enable the CuNCs/TPrA system with a stronger ECL than other thiol capping agents, so that Cys-CuNCs are utilized as ECL tags for sensitive and selective immunoassays, which exhibit a wide linear response range from 0.05 pg/mL to 0.5 ng/mL and a limit of detection of 0.01 pg/mL (S/N = 3) with carcinoembryonic antigen as the analyte. Moreover, both the luminophore Cys-CuNCs and conjugates Ab₂-CuNCs can be safely stored in aqueous media without any protector, which is promising for the evolution and clinic application of metal NC ECL in the surface-defect-involved route.

A highly selective fluorescent sensor for chlortetracycline based on histidine-templated copper nanoclusters

In this study, histidine-protected copper nanoclusters (Cu NCs@His) were established by using a one-pot method, which histidine and ascorbic acid were applied as the template and reducing agent, respectively. The as-developed Cu NCs@His endued green emission wavelength at 494 nm with the excitation of 378 nm. The Cu NCs@His exhibited green fluorescence under UV light (365 nm). Using Cu NCs@His as a pattern nanosensor, the fluorescent "turn off" mechanism was fabricated for the determination of chlortetracycline in the light of the linear decrease of fluorescence intensities around 494 nm. The chlortetracycline conducted as a quencher, leading to reveal an excellent linear relationship between ln(F₀/F) of Cu NCs@His and chlortetracycline concentrations with the range of 0.5-200 μM, and the detection limit was 0.876 μM. The fluorescence quenching of Cu NCs@His revealed excellent selectivity for chlortetracycline over other potential interfering substances in the human body. This strategy was exhibited to be a convenient sensing platform for the detection of chlortetracycline in real medical samples, which could unfold a brand new and direct system for the sensing of chlortetracycline in real samples.

Fluorene intercalated graphene oxide based CoQ10 imprinted polymer composite as a selective platform for electrochemical sensing of CoQ10

The new objective of sustainable analytical chemistry is to develop validated robust, swift, simple and highly sensitive analytical methods that are based on cost effective sensing technology. Therefore, in this study the electro-chemical detection of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10) was achieved using a fluorene intercalated graphene oxide based CoQ10 imprinted polymer composite modified glassy carbon electrode (CoQ10-IGOPC/GCE). The synthesized sensing material was characterized using SEM, XRD and FT-IR to determine the morphology and functional properties. The CoQ10-IGOPC/GCE was characterized by EIS for its electrochemical properties. CoQ10 was detected selectively using Differential Pulse Voltammetry (DPV). Under ideal circumstances, a linear calibration curve with a correlation coefficient (R ²) of 0.991 was produced in the concentration range of 0.0967 to 28.7 μM. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) were found to be 0.029 and 0.0967 μM, respectively. Furthermore, the proposed electrochemical sensor was extremely selective, accurate and thoroughly validated with RSD values less than 5%. The developed CoQ10-IGOPC/GCE based electrochemical sensor was successfully used for the detection of CoQ10 in samples of fruits, vegetables, nuts, human blood serum and pharmaceuticals. The CoQ10-IGOPC/GCE based electrochemical method showed good percent recoveries ranging from 94 to 103 percent.

An advantageous application of molecularly imprinted polymers in food processing and quality control

In the global market era, food product control is very challenging. It is impossible to track and control all production and delivery chains not only for regular customers but also for the State Sanitary Inspections. Certified laboratories currently use accurate food safety and quality inspection methods. However, these methods are very laborious and costly. The present review highlights the need to develop fast, robust, and cost-effective analytical assays to determine food contamination. Application of the molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) as selective recognition units for chemosensors' fabrication was herein explored. MIPs enable fast and inexpensive electrochemical and optical transduction, significantly improving detectability, sensitivity, and selectivity. MIPs compromise durability of synthetic materials with a high affinity to target analytes and selectivity of molecular recognition. Imprinted molecular cavities, present in MIPs structure, are complementary to the target analyte molecules in terms of size, shape, and location of recognizing sites. They perfectly mimic natural molecular recognition. The present review article critically covers MIPs' applications in selective assays for a wide range of food products. Moreover, numerous potential applications of MIPs in the food industry, including sample pretreatment before analysis, removal of contaminants, or extraction of high-value ingredients, are discussed.

Advances in Detection of Antibiotic Pollutants in Aqueous Media Using Molecular Imprinting Technique-A Review

Antibiotics constitute one of the emerging categories of persistent organic pollutants, characterised by their expansion of resistant pathogens. Antibiotic pollutants create a major public health challenge, with already identifiable detrimental effects on human and animal health. A fundamental aspect of controlling and preventing the spread of pollutants is the continuous screening and monitoring of environmental samples. Molecular imprinting is a state-of-the-art technique for designing robust biomimetic receptors called molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), which mimic natural biomolecules in target-selective recognition. When integrated with an appropriate sensor transducer, MIP demonstrates a potential for the needed environmental monitoring, thus justifying the observed rise in interest in this field of research. This review examines scientific interventions within the last decade on the determination of antibiotic water pollutants using MIP receptors interfaced with label-free sensing platforms, with an expanded focus on optical, piezoelectric, and electrochemical systems. Following these, the review evaluates the analytical performance of outstanding MIP-based sensors for environmentally significant antibiotics, while highlighting the importance of computational chemistry in functional monomer selection and the strategies for signal amplification and performance improvement. Lastly, the review points out the future trends in antibiotic MIP research, as it transits from a proof of concept to the much demanded commercially available entity.

Recent progress of metal nanoclusters in electrochemiluminescence

Metal nanoclusters (MeNCs), composed of a few to hundreds of metal atoms and appropriate surface ligands, have attracted extensive interest in the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) realm owing to their molecule-like optical, electronic, and physicochemical attributes and are strongly anticipated for discrete energy levels, fascinating electrocatalytic activity, and good biocompatibility. Over the past decade, huge efforts have been devoted to the synthesis, properties, and application research of ECL-related MeNCs, and this field is still a subject of heightened concern. Therefore, this perspective aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the recent advances of MeNCs in the ECL domain, mainly covering the emerged ECL available MeNCs, unique chemical and optical properties, and the general ECL mechanisms. Synthesis strategies for desirable ECL performance are further highlighted, and the resulting ECL sensing applications utilizing MeNCs as luminophores, quenchers, and substrates are discussed systematically. Finally, we anticipate the future prospects and challenges in the development of this area.

A highly sensitive impedimetric sensor based on a MIP biomimetic for the detection of enrofloxacin

The benefits of molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) technology in creating artificial receptors to replace natural counterparts have piqued the interest of numerous researchers in recent years. We propose a biomimetic enrofloxacin-MIP for enrofloxacin (ENRO) antigen detection using gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and MIP methodologies in this study. A self-assembled monomer layer of aminothiophenol was used to immobilize a pre-formed complex of the anti-enrofloxacin monoclonal antibody and enrofloxacin antigen onto the surface of an AuNP coated screen-printed carbon ink electrode (SPCE). The poly-(aminothiophenol) layer thickness was adjusted to entrap and restrict enrofloxacin antigens near the surface. The imprinting and removal of the enrofloxacin antigen in the MIP film were strongly validated by the Raman spectra. The final mAb-MIP sensor had better sensitivity (302 Ω mL ng^-1) and a better detection limit (0.05 ng mL^-1) than self-assembled monolayer (SAM)-based immunosensors, which had 102 Ω mL ng^-1 and 0.1 ng mL^-1, respectively.

Simple preparation of surface molecularly imprinted polymer based on silica particles for trace level assay of bisphenol F

A new electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS)-based porous interface was developed for selective recognition of bisphenol F (BPF) in this study. The sensor was prepared by depositing the solution containing TEOS and L-tryptophan (L-Trp) in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) as a pore-maker via hydrolysis/condensation reaction on the glassy carbon electrode (GCE). While the surface morphology and structure characterization were carried out using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electrochemical characterization was performed through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry (CV). The resulted MIP(TEOS:L-Trp)@GCE achieved a wide linear range of 1 × 10^-15-1 × 10^-14 M for BPF detection with an excellent detection limit of 0.291 fM. Furthermore, the recovery of BPF from spiked bottled water and serum samples varied between 98.83 and 101.03%. These results demonstrate that MIP(TEOS:L-Trp)@GCE was found to be a simple, sensitive, and selective smart interface to detect trace pollution even from complicated samples.

Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) in Sensors for Environmental and Biomedical Applications: A Review

Molecular imprinted polymers are custom made materials with specific recognition sites for a target molecule. Their specificity and the variety of materials and physical shapes in which they can be fabricated make them ideal components for sensing platforms. Despite their excellent properties, MIP-based sensors have rarely left the academic laboratory environment. This work presents a comprehensive review of recent reports in the environmental and biomedical fields, with a focus on electrochemical and optical signaling mechanisms. The discussion aims to identify knowledge gaps that hinder the translation of MIP-based technology from research laboratories to commercialization.