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Heydarzadeh S, Kia SK, Boroomand S, Hedayati M. Recent Developments in Cell Shipping Methods. Biotechnol Bioeng 2022; 119:2985-3006. [PMID: 35898166 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
As opposed to remarkable advances in the cell therapy industry, researches reveal inexplicable difficulties associated with preserving and post-thawing cell death. Post cryopreservation apoptosis is a common occurrence that has attracted the attention of scientists to use apoptosis inhibitors. Transporting cells without compromising their survival and function is crucial for any experimental cell-based therapy. Preservation of cells allows the safe transportation of cells between distances and improves quality control testing in clinical and research applications. The vitality of transported cells is used to evaluate the efficacy of transportation strategies. For many decades, the conventional global methods of cell transfer were not only expensive but also challenging and had adverse effects. The first determination of some projects is optimizing cell survival after cryopreservation. The new generation of cryopreservation science wishes to find appropriate and alternative methods for cell transportation to ship viable cells at an ambient temperature without dry ice or in media-filled flasks. The diversity of cell therapies demands new cell shipping methodologies and cryoprotectants. In this review, we tried to summarize novel improved cryopreservation methods and alternatives to cryopreservation with safe and viable cell shipping at ambient temperature, including dry preservation, hypothermic preservation, gel-based methods, encapsulation methods, fibrin microbeads, and osmolyte solution compositions. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabnam Heydarzadeh
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, Falavarjan Branch Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran.,Cellular and Molecular Endocrine Research Center, Research Institute for Endocrine Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sima Kheradmand Kia
- Laboratory for Red Blood Cell Diagnostics, Sanquin, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Seti Boroomand
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Mehdi Hedayati
- Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Kovpak VV, Kovpak OS, Valchuk OA, Zhuk YV, Derkach SS. Specifics of vitrification of in vitro-produced cattle embyos at various development stages. REGULATORY MECHANISMS IN BIOSYSTEMS 2022. [DOI: 10.15421/022234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Producing embryos in vitro is an important technology used to improve the genetic potential of cattle and perfect the programs of their breeding. Regardless of the way they are produced, all embryos that had not been used for transplantation to recipients must be conserved. Because of significantly increased interest in the problem of cryoconservation of embryos, both coming from scientists and businesses, there are emerging new commercial environments that allow the facilitation of cryoconservation and the increase in the embryo survival. Oocyte-cumulus complexes obtained from the ovaries of slaughtered clinically healthy cows matured in 22–24 h in in vitro conditions. The oocytes were co-cultured with spermatozoids in Fertilization medium, and the obtained zygotes were cultured in Culture medium with Sodium-Pyruvate for 4 or 7 days up to the stage of morula or blastocyste, respectively. For the vitrification of cow embryos, we used a commercial kit for the vitrification of human embryos, having compared the duration of equilibration. According to the results of the studies, we observed high efficiency of cryoconservation of cow embryos using the commercial kit for vitrification of human embryos. The results revealed the significant effect of equilibration on survival and further development of embryos. In addition, we described the dependence of development stage of cattle embryo on the duration of the contact of embryo with equilibration solution. Therefore, optimal time of contact of cattle embryos at the morula stage with equilibration solution was 12 minutes. On the 24th h after thawing, 46.7 ± 3.3% of the embryos were observed to undergo blastulation, and on 48th h, this parameter increased to 96.7 ± 3.3%, which corresponded to the parameters in the group of embryos that had not been subjected to cryoconservation. In the conditions of further cultivation, the percentage of blastocystes that hatched in the experimental group was no different from that of the control. At the same time, the highest efficiency of vitrification of blastocystes of cows was seen after the contact with the equilibration solution for 15 min, since the percentage of hatched blastocystes was the same as in the control group. Therefore, using the commercial kit for vitrification of human embryos is beneficial, for it promotes the parameters of cow embryos after vitrification/thawing that are similar to such of intact embryos (without freezing). The data we analyzed and presented in the paper could help to increase the efficiency of cryoconservation of cattle embryos for both scientific and commercial purposes.
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Fernandez J, Bruno Galarraga MM, Lacau Mengido IM, Cueto MI, Gibbons AE. A successful vitrification technique for goat morulae conservation. Theriogenology 2022; 182:103-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2022.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Shahsavari MH, Alves KA, Alves BG, de Lima LF, Vizcarra DAM, Berrocal DJD, Silva LM, da Silva YP, Zelinski MB, de Figueiredo JR, Moghaddam G, Rodrigues APR. Impacts of different synthetic polymers on vitrification of ovarian tissue. Cryobiology 2020; 94:66-72. [PMID: 32339491 DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2020.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Revised: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Type and concentration of cryoprotective agents (CPAs) are important factors which influence the likelihood of a successful ovarian tissue vitrification outcome. In an attempt to address this factor, the present study was conducted to evaluate the impacts of different synthetic polymers (Supercool X-1000, Supercool Z-1000 and PVP K-12) on vitrification of bovine ovarian tissue. From each ovarian pair, fragments were recovered and immediately fixed for analysis (fresh control) or submitted to vitrification, either or not followed by in vitro culture for one or five days. Vitrification was performed using the ovarian tissue cryosystem (OTC) system. The ovarian tissues were intended for histological and viability analysis [Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and degenerate cells assay (Ethidium homodimer-1)], as well as immunolocalization of AQP3 and AQP9 were measured. The results showed that during almost all the periods after warming, in treatment groups which contain polymer (X-1000, Z-1000 and PVP), the percentage of morphologically normal follicles was the highest in the X-1000 samples. Furthermore, post-thawed X-1000 group revealed stronger labeling for AQP9 in primordial and transitional follicles, when compared with others. However, morphology after cryopreservation did not correlate with follicle viability and function where the levels of degeneration and tissue damage of PVP K-12 group were lower in comparison with X-1000 group and only in PVP K-12 group, ROS level was similar to that of the fresh control group. We believe that in addition to permeating CPAs, the addition of one (Supercool X-1000) or maybe a combination (Supercool X-1000 and PVP K-12) of non-permeating polymers could be useful to improve the outcome for vitrified bovine ovarian tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kele Amaral Alves
- Postgraduate Program, Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Medicine College, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Benner Geraldo Alves
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Laritza Ferreira de Lima
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Diego Alberto Montano Vizcarra
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Deysi Juana Dipaz Berrocal
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Luciana Mascena Silva
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Yago Pinto da Silva
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Mary B Zelinski
- Division of Reproductive & Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - José Ricardo de Figueiredo
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
| | - Gholamali Moghaddam
- Department of Animal Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Ana Paula Ribeiro Rodrigues
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Laboratory of Manipulation of Oocytes and Preantral Follicles (LAMOFOPA), State University of Ceara, Fortaleza, CE, Brazil
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Do VH, Catt S, Kinder JE, Walton S, Taylor-Robinson AW. Vitrification of in vitro-derived bovine embryos: targeting enhancement of quality by refining technology and standardising procedures. Reprod Fertil Dev 2020; 31:837-846. [PMID: 30625115 DOI: 10.1071/rd18352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bovine invitro fertilisation technology has been widely exploited in commercial settings. The majority of invitro-derived cattle embryos are transferred into recipient cows as recently collected (i.e. 'fresh') embryos due to the lack of a reliable cryopreservation method that results in favourable pregnancy rates following transfer of thawed embryos. This is a primary reason for the poor industry uptake of this extreme temperature freezing process. Numerous investigations into vitrification have revealed the importance of rapid cooling and warming rates, enhancing embryo viability after cryopreservation compared with conventional slow freezing. Those studies spawned a considerable assortment of cryovessels and diversity of procedures, delivering variable rates of success, which makes performing vitrification consistently a practical challenge. Hence, further research is required in order to both optimise and standardise vitrification methodology and to design a cryovessel that enables direct transfer of vitrified embryos to recipients after warming. In parallel with improvements in vitrification, it is important to continue to raise the quality of invitro-derived cattle embryos through modifications in laboratory culture techniques. The twin goals of methodology refinement and standardisation, leading to embryo quality enhancement, are each imperative if invitro fertilisation technology is to be adopted in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- V H Do
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Qld 4702, Australia
| | - S Catt
- Education Program in Reproduction and Development, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Monash University, Clayton, Vic. 3168, Australia
| | - J E Kinder
- Department of Animal Sciences, Ohio State University, OH 43210, USA
| | - S Walton
- Australian Reproductive Technologies, Mt Chalmers, Qld 4702, Australia
| | - A W Taylor-Robinson
- School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Brisbane, Qld 4000, Australia
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Bottrel M, Mogas T, Pereira B, Ortiz I, Díaz-Jiménez M, Consuegra C, Hidalgo M, Morató R, Dorado J. The cryoprotective effect of Ficoll 70 on the post-warming survival and quality of Cryotop-vitrified donkey embryos. Theriogenology 2019; 148:180-185. [PMID: 31757484 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2019.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 11/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Many domestic donkey breeds are at risk of extinction, there is a critical urgency for genome resource banking. In the present study, we examined whether the use of Ficoll 70 added to the vitrification medium containing ethylene glycol (EG), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and sucrose improves the cryotolerance of donkey in vivo derived embryos. Day 7-8, grade 1-2 donkey embryos were measured and morphologically evaluated and then vitrified-warmed using the Cryotop technique. Before vitrification, embryos were randomly distributed into two groups: (i) VS1 (n = 14): vitrified using 15% EG + 15% DMSO + 0.5 M sucrose; and (ii) VS2 (n = 10): vitrified in the same medium supplemented also with 18% of Ficoll 70. After 24 h of warming, the embryos were measured and evaluated for their morphology, development and viability (Propidium Iodide-Hoechst 33342 dyes). Post-warming survival was numerically higher but not significantly different (P > 0.05) when embryos were vitrified in VS2 (70%) compared to VS1 (57.1%). Embryo rupture was only observed in the VS1 group (21.4%, 3/14). Higher embryo diameter was observed in all groups after 24 h culture (P < 0.05). No significant differences (P > 0.05) were observed among treatments in terms of percentages of cell death. These results demonstrate that the addition of Ficoll 70 to the vitrification medium is not a pre-requisite for successful vitrification of donkey embryos. However, its addition seems to enhance some of the post-warming embryo quality characteristics. Since no statistically significant evidence was found, further studies should be conducted in order to confirm our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bottrel
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain
| | - T Mogas
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - B Pereira
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain
| | - I Ortiz
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain
| | - M Díaz-Jiménez
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain
| | - C Consuegra
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain
| | - M Hidalgo
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain
| | - R Morató
- Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery, Autonomous University of Barcelona, 08193, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
| | - J Dorado
- Veterinary Reproduction Group, Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery. Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cordoba, 14071, Cordoba, Spain.
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Jia Y, Yang X, Zhang C, Yang S, Li M, Xu W, Ji Q, Jiang H. Cryosurvival and pregnancy rates: One-step protocol for freezing-thawing Shangri-la Yak (Bos grunniens) Embryos. Reprod Domest Anim 2018; 53:1168-1175. [PMID: 29962058 DOI: 10.1111/rda.13222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2018] [Revised: 05/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The yak is one of the most important and economically useful animals for highlanders. The decline in the yak population requires effective measures for the conservation and multiplication of elite germplasm. A standardized protocol will simplify the freezing and warming of yak embryos in straw and facilitate embryo transfer. In this work, we investigated a one-step protocol that uses a stable basal medium, which comprised a warming medium (1.08 M sucrose) and a freezing medium (EFS40). We also assessed the effects of the new transfer method on embryo survival. A total of 145 yak frozen embryos were thawed in a standard medium system. The one-step protocol led to a high recovery percentage (84.93) of yak embryos that survived vitrification and warming. The in vitro survival rates of these embryos significantly different from those of embryos frozen-thawed via the conventional method. The 95 embryos frozen-thawed via our one-step protocol were then implanted in selected recipients. Thirty-six singleton pregnancies were established. In conclusion, the proposed one-step method is a simple, safe, and standardized freezing-thawing protocol that ensures embryo survival and quality under field conditions. This study establishes new possibilities for the widespread use of embryo transfer in yaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yinhai Jia
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Xiurong Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Chengfu Zhang
- Tibet Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Institute of Husbandry and Pharmaceutical Science, Lhasa, China
| | - Shangzhi Yang
- Shangri-la Zanglong Biological Development Co., Ltd., Di qing, China
| | - Ming Li
- Guangxi Autonomous Region Livestock Breed Improvement Station, Nanning, China
| | - Wenwen Xu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Qiumei Ji
- Tibet Academy of Agricultural and Animal Husbandry Sciences, Institute of Husbandry and Pharmaceutical Science, Lhasa, China
| | - Hesheng Jiang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
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Schwarz KRL, de Castro FC, Schefer L, Botigelli RC, Paschoal DM, Fernandes H, Leal CLV. The role of cGMP as a mediator of lipolysis in bovine oocytes and its effects on embryo development and cryopreservation. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0191023. [PMID: 29360833 PMCID: PMC5779671 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0191023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 12/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the influence of cyclic guanosine 3’5’-monophosphate (cGMP) and cGMP-dependent kinase (PKG) during in vitro maturation (IVM) on lipolysis-related parameters in bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), and on embryo development and cryosurvival. COCs were matured with cGMP/PKG modulators and assessed for metaphase II rates (MII), cGMP levels, lipid content in oocytes (OO), transcript abundance for genes involved in lipolysis (ATGL) and lipid droplets (PLIN2) in cumulus cells (CC) and OO, and presence of phosphorylated (active) hormone sensitive lipase (HSLser563) in OO. Embryo development, lipid contents and survival to vitrification were also assessed. Phosphodiesterase 5 inhibition (PDE5; cGMP-hydrolyzing enzyme) with 10-5M sildenafil (SDF) during 24 h IVM increased cGMP in COCs (56.9 vs 9.5 fMol/COC in untreated controls, p<0.05) and did not affect on maturation rate (84.3±6.4% MII). Fetal calf serum (FCS) in IVM medium decreased cGMP in COCs compared to bovine serum albumin (BSA) + SDF (19.6 vs 66.5 fMol/COC, respectively, p<0.05). FCS increased lipid content in OO (40.1 FI, p<0.05) compared to BSA (34.6 FI), while SDF decreased (29.8 and 29.6 FI, with BSA or FCS, respectively p<0.05). PKG inhibitor (KT5823) reversed this effect (38.9 FI, p<0.05). ATGL and PLIN2 transcripts were detected in CC and OO, but were affected by cGMP and PKG only in CC. HSLser563 was detected in OO matured with or without modulators. Reduced lipid content in embryos were observed only when SDF was added during IVM and IVC (27.6 FI) compared to its use in either or none of the culture periods (34.2 FI, p<0.05). Survival to vitrification was unaffected by SDF. In conclusion, cGMP and PKG are involved in lipolysis in OO and possibly in CC and embryos; serum negatively affects this pathway, contributing to lipid accumulation, and cGMP modulation may reduce lipid contents in oocytes and embryos, but without improving embryo cryotolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kátia R. L. Schwarz
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos (FZEA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brasil
- * E-mail: (CLVL); (KRLS)
| | - Fernanda C. de Castro
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos (FZEA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Letícia Schefer
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos (FZEA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Ramon C. Botigelli
- Universidade Estadual Paulista (Unesp), Instituto de Biociências de Botucatu (IBB), Departamento de Farmacologia, Botucatu, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Daniela M. Paschoal
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos (FZEA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Hugo Fernandes
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos (FZEA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Cláudia L. V. Leal
- Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos (FZEA), Departamento de Medicina Veterinária, Pirassununga, São Paulo, Brasil
- * E-mail: (CLVL); (KRLS)
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Abdel-Gawa E, Abdel-Hali B, Helmy N, Badr A. Effect of Cryoprotective Solutions, Ethylene Glycol, Dimethyle-sulfoxide and Ficoll 70 with Different Combination Ratios on Vitrification of Bovine Oocytes and Embryos Produced in vitro. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.3923/ajava.2016.608.619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Paschoal DM, Sudano MJ, Schwarz KRL, Maziero RRD, Guastali MD, Crocomo LF, Magalhães LCO, Martins A, Leal CLV, Landim-Alvarenga FDC. Cell apoptosis and lipid content of in vitro-produced, vitrified bovine embryos treated with forskolin. Theriogenology 2016; 87:108-114. [PMID: 27634395 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2016.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The presence of fetal calf serum in culture medium influences embryo quality, causing a reduction in postcryopreservation survival. Forskolin has been used to induce lipolysis and increase cryotolerance, functioning as an activator of adenylate cyclase and elevating cAMP levels. In the present experiment, bovine zygotes were cultured in synthetic oviduct fluid with amino acid plus 2.5% fetal calf serum for 6 days, when forskolin was added in three concentrations: 2.5, 5, and 10 μM. Treatment with forskolin lasted for 24 hours. Blastocyst formation rate, quantification of lipid granules, total cell numbers, and apoptosis rate were evaluated. In a second assessment, embryos were vitrified, and warming, re-expansion rate, total cell numbers, and apoptosis rate were also evaluated. There was no difference due to forskolin in blastocyst formation or re-expansion rates after vitrification. However, lipid measurements were lower (control: 136.8 and F 2.5 μM: 128.5; P < 0.05), and number of cells per embryo higher (control: 140.1 and F 2.5 μM: 173.5; P < 0.05) than controls for 2.5 μM forskolin but not for higher forskolin concentrations. The number of intact cells per embryo was higher, and the rate of apoptosis was lower in fresh than in vitrified embryos (number of cells of warmed embryos, control: 104.1, F 2.5 μM: 101.3, F 5 μM: 115.4, F 10 μM: 95.1; apoptotic of fresh cells, control: 12.1%, F 2.5 μM: 16.7%, F 5 μM: 11.1%, F 10 μM: 14.2%; and apoptotic warmed embryos, control: 22.3%, F 2.5 μM: 37.3%, F 5 μM: 33.2%, F 10 μM: 30.3%; P < 0.05). It was concluded that forskolin is an effective lipolytic agent even at low concentrations, leading to formation of blastocysts with a comparatively larger number of cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Martins Paschoal
- Departmento de Medicina Veterinária, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade de São Paulo, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil.
| | - Mateus José Sudano
- Universidade Federal do Pampa, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Uruguaiana, RS, Brazil
| | - Kátia Regina Lancellotti Schwarz
- Departmento de Medicina Veterinária, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade de São Paulo, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Rosiára Rosário Dias Maziero
- Departmento de Reprodução Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Midyan Daroz Guastali
- Departmento de Reprodução Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Letícia Ferrari Crocomo
- Departmento de Reprodução Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Luis Carlos Oña Magalhães
- Departmento de Reprodução Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
| | - Alício Martins
- Departmento de Clínica, Cirurgia e Reprodução Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, Araçatuba, SP, Brazil
| | - Claudia Lima Verde Leal
- Departmento de Medicina Veterinária, Faculdade de Zootecnia e Engenharia de Alimentos, Universidade de São Paulo, Pirassununga, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda da Cruz Landim-Alvarenga
- Departmento de Reprodução Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia, Universidade do Estado de São Paulo, Botucatu, SP, Brazil
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Maziero RRD, Guaitolini CRF, Paschoal DM, Kievitsbosch T, Guastali MD, Moraes CN, Landim-Alvarenga FC. Effect of Temporary Meiotic Attenuation of Oocytes with Butyrolactone I and Roscovitine in Resistance to Bovine Embryos on Vitrification. Reprod Domest Anim 2016; 51:204-11. [DOI: 10.1111/rda.12667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- RRD Maziero
- Department of Animal Reproduction; School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP; Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
| | - CRF Guaitolini
- Department of Animal Reproduction; School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP; Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
| | - DM Paschoal
- Department of Animal Reproduction; School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP; Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
| | - T Kievitsbosch
- Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Physiological Sciences; Oklahoma State University (OSU); Stillwater OK USA
| | - MD Guastali
- Department of Animal Reproduction; School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP; Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
| | - CN Moraes
- Department of Animal Reproduction; School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP; Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
| | - FC Landim-Alvarenga
- Department of Animal Reproduction; School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science; Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP; Botucatu São Paulo Brazil
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Sanches BV, Lunardelli PA, Tannura JH, Cardoso BL, Pereira MHC, Gaitkoski D, Basso AC, Arnold DR, Seneda MM. A new direct transfer protocol for cryopreserved IVF embryos. Theriogenology 2015; 85:1147-51. [PMID: 26739533 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2015.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The global demand for in vitro-produced (IVP) embryos of determined sex has greatly increased over the last decade. Efficient protocols for the direct transfer of IVP embryos are lacking. This study aimed to compare the pregnancy rates for fresh, vitrified, or frozen/directly transferred IVP dairy cow embryos. Oocytes (n = 3171) recovered by ovum pickup (n = 112) from Girolando (Holstein-Gir) females (n = 36) were selected and submitted to IVM for 24 hours at 38.5 °C with 5% CO2 in air with saturated humidity. In vitro fertilization was performed with the thawed, sexed semen from 5 Holstein bulls. After IVF, presumptive zygotes were denuded and cultured for 7 days under the same IVM and IVF conditions of temperature and humidity, except with 5% CO2 and 5% O2. Grade I blastocysts were randomly assigned for either the transferred fresh, vitrified/thawing, or frozen/directly embryo transfer into previously synchronized recipient females. Conception rates were analyzed by binomial logistic regression, and a probability level of P < 0.05 was considered significant. The conception rates were 51.35 ± 1.87% (133/259) for the fresh embryos, 35.89 ± 3.87% (84/234) for the vitrified embryos, and 40.19 ± 4.65% (125/311) for the frozen directly transferred embryos. These data demonstrate that IVP embryos with sexed semen could be directly transferred into recipient cows with similar conception rates to vitrified embryos. The comparison found that the use of frozen embryos in direct transfer provides easier logistics and a more practical approach for the transfer of IVP embryos on dairy farms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paula Alvares Lunardelli
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, State University of Londrina (UEL), Department of Veterinary Clinics (DCV), CCA, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Marcelo Marcondes Seneda
- Laboratory of Animal Reproduction, State University of Londrina (UEL), Department of Veterinary Clinics (DCV), CCA, Londrina, Paraná, Brazil.
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Roberts MA, London K, Campos-Chillón LF, Altermatt JL. Presumed monozygotic twins develop following transfer of an in vitro-produced equine embryo. J Equine Sci 2015; 26:89-94. [PMID: 26435682 PMCID: PMC4591415 DOI: 10.1294/jes.26.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Accepted: 06/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
An equine embryo produced by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) was trans-cervically transferred to a recipient mare and pregnancy was confirmed via ultrasound examination on days 11, 12 and 15. On days 20 and 22, a single embryonic proper with a heartbeat was observed. On day 29, two embryos proper appeared during ultrasound examination, each possessing a heartbeat. Subsequent examinations on days 35 and 39 revealed continued viability and development of both embryos proper. On day 49, demise of both fetuses was present. Although no DNA analysis or post-partum examinations were performed, it is presumed that the fetuses were monozygotic twins based on membrane classification by ultrasound imaging as well as development occurring after the transfer of a single in vitro-produced embryo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Ann Roberts
- Department of Animal Science, California Polytechnic State University, CA 93407, U.S.A
| | - Kelly London
- Department of Animal Science, California Polytechnic State University, CA 93407, U.S.A
| | | | - Joy Lynn Altermatt
- Department of Dairy Science, California Polytechnic State University, CA 93407, U.S.A
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Cavusoglu T, Popken J, Guengoer T, Yilmaz O, Uyanikgil Y, Ates U, Baka M, Oztas E, Zakhartchenko V. Ultra-Structural Alterations in In Vitro Produced Four-Cell Bovine Embryos Following Controlled Slow Freezing or Vitrification. Anat Histol Embryol 2015; 45:291-307. [PMID: 26293816 DOI: 10.1111/ahe.12197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cryopreservation is the process of freezing and preserving cells and tissues at low temperatures. Controlled slow freezing and vitrification have successfully been used for cryopreservation of mammalian embryos. We investigated the effect of these two cryopreservation methods on in vitro produced four-cell stage bovine embryos which were classified according to their quality and separated into three groups. The first group was maintained as untreated controls (n = 350). Embryos of the second (n = 385) and the third (n = 385) groups were cryopreserved either by controlled slow freezing or by vitrification. Embryos in groups 2 and 3 were thawed after 1 day. Hundred embryos were randomly selected from the control group, and 100 morphologically intact embryos from the second and third group were thawed after 1 day and cultured to observe the development up to the blastocyst stage. The blastocyst development rate was 22% in the control group, 1% in the slow-freezing group and 3% in the vitrification group. Remaining embryos of all three groups were examined by light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy with subsequent histological staining procedures. Cryopreservation caused degenerative changes at the ultra-structural level. Compared with vitrification, slow freezing caused an increased mitochondrial degeneration, cytoplasmic vacuolization, disruption of the nuclear and plasma membrane integrity, organelle disintegration, cytoskeletal damage, a reduced thickness of the zona pellucida and a formation of fractures in the zona pellucida. Further studies are required to understand and decrease the harmful effects of cryopreservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Cavusoglu
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey.,Cord Blood, Cell-Tissue Application and Research Center, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - J Popken
- Division of Anthropology and Human Genetics, Biocenter, Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Grosshadernerstrasse 2, 82152, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - T Guengoer
- Department of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Hackerstr. 27, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
| | - O Yilmaz
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey.,Cord Blood, Cell-Tissue Application and Research Center, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Y Uyanikgil
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey.,Cord Blood, Cell-Tissue Application and Research Center, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - U Ates
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Bilim University School of Medicine, 34349, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - M Baka
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey.,Cord Blood, Cell-Tissue Application and Research Center, Ege University, 35100, Izmir, Turkey
| | - E Oztas
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Gulhane Military Medical Academy, 06010, Ankara, Turkey
| | - V Zakhartchenko
- Department of Molecular Animal Breeding and Biotechnology, Ludwig-Maximilian-University of Munich, Hackerstr. 27, 85764, Oberschleissheim, Germany
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Sudano MJ, Caixeta ES, Paschoal DM, Martins A, Machado R, Buratini J, Landim-Alvarenga FDC. Cryotolerance and global gene-expression patterns of Bos taurus indicus and Bos taurus taurus in vitro- and in vivo-produced blastocysts. Reprod Fertil Dev 2015; 26:1129-41. [PMID: 24025608 DOI: 10.1071/rd13099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
In a 2×2 factorial experimental design, embryo development, cryotolerance and global gene expression of Nellore (Bos taurus indicus) and Simmental (Bos taurus taurus) blastocysts produced in vitro (IVP) and in vivo (multiple ovulation derived embryo, MODE) were assessed. Blastocyst production was higher in Nellore than in Simmental (47.7±2.0% vs 27.0±2.0%) cows. The total numbers of ova or embryos recovered (5.5±0.9 vs 3.7±0.8) and transferable embryos (3.8±1.0 vs 2.3±0.8) per cow were not different between breeds. Simmental and MODE (34.6% and 38.5%, n=75 and 70) blastocysts had higher survival rates after cryopreservation compared with Nellore and IVP (20.2% and 18.1%, n=89 and 94) embryos, respectively. Differences between transcriptomes were addressed by principal-component analysis, which indicated that gene expression was affected by subspecies (158 genes), origin (532 genes) and interaction between both subspecies and origin (53 genes). Several functional processes and pathways relevant to lipid metabolism and embryo viability involving differentially expressed genes were identified. The lipid metabolism-related genes were upregulated in Simmental (AUH and ELOVL6) and IVP (ACSL3 and ACSL6) blastocysts. The expression profiles of genes related to mitochondrial metabolism (ATP5B), oxidative stress (GPX4), apoptosis (DAD1, DAP, PRDX2), heat shock (HSPA5), pregnancy (IFNT2, PAG2) and cell differentiation (KRT18) varied between experimental groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mateus J Sudano
- São Paulo State University, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Animal Reproduction and Veterinary Radiology, Rubião Jr. s/n°, 18618-970, Botucatu-SP, Brazil
| | - Ester S Caixeta
- University of José Rosário Vellano (UNIFENAS), Department of Animal Reproduction, 37130-000, Alfenas-MG, Brazil
| | - Daniela M Paschoal
- São Paulo State University, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Animal Reproduction and Veterinary Radiology, Rubião Jr. s/n°, 18618-970, Botucatu-SP, Brazil
| | - Alicio Martins
- São Paulo State University, School of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Clinical Surgery and Animal Reproduction, 16050-680, Araçatuba-SP, Brazil
| | - Rui Machado
- Embrapa Southeast Cattle, PO Box 339, 13560-970, São Carlos-SP, Brazil
| | - José Buratini
- São Paulo State University, Department of Physiology, Rubião Jr. s/n°, 18618-970, Botucatu-SP, Brazil
| | - Fernanda D C Landim-Alvarenga
- São Paulo State University, School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Department of Animal Reproduction and Veterinary Radiology, Rubião Jr. s/n°, 18618-970, Botucatu-SP, Brazil
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Expression and localization of Aquaporin 3 (AQP3) in folliculogenesis of ewes. Acta Histochem 2014; 116:831-7. [PMID: 24629225 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Revised: 02/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The mRNA expression and localization of Aquaporin 3 (AQP3) were investigated in the ovarian follicles of ewes at different stages of development (primordial, primary, secondary, small, and large antral). The gene expression was quantified by qPCR, while the protein identification and localization were determined by Western blot and immunohistochemistry, respectively. Analysis revealed that AQP3 mRNA was detected only in the antral follicles, whereas the protein expression was detected in the oocyte and granulosa cells in all stages of follicular development. The latter observation suggests that the presence of AQP3 in follicles of all categories, especially in the antral follicles, provides novel insights on the mechanisms that regulate the flow of water between cells during the formation of antral follicles in sheep.
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Zhou Y, Fu X, Zhou G, Jia B, Fang Y, Hou Y, Zhu S. An efficient method for the sanitary vitrification of bovine oocytes in straws. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2014; 5:19. [PMID: 24721129 PMCID: PMC4012761 DOI: 10.1186/2049-1891-5-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background At present, vitrification has been widely applied to humans, mice and farm animals. To improve the efficiency of vitrification in straw, bovine oocytes were used to test a new two-step vitrification method in this study. Results When in vitro matured oocytes were exposed to 20% ethylene glycol (EG20) for 5 min and 40% ethylene glycol (EG40) for 30 s, followed by treatment with 30% glycerol (Gly30), Gly40 or Gly50, a volume expansion was observed in Gly30 and Gly40 but not Gly50. This indicates that the intracellular osmotic pressure after a 30 s differs between EG40 and ranged between Gly40 (approximately 5.6 mol/L) and Gly50 (approximately 7.0 mol/L). Since oocytes are in EG40 just for only a short period of time (30 s) and at a lower temperature (4°C), we hypothesize that the main function of this step in to induce dehydration. Based on these results, we omitted the EG40 step, before oocytes were pretreated in EG20 for 5 min, exposed to pre-cooled (4°C) Gly50, for 30 s, and then dipped into liquid nitrogen. After warming, 81.1% of the oocytes survived, and the surviving oocytes developed into cleavage stage embryos (63.5%) or blastocysts (20.0%) after parthenogenetic activation. Conclusions These results demonstrate that in a two-step vitrification procedure, the permeability effect in the second step is not necessary. It is possible that the second step is only required to provide adequate osmotic pressure to condense the intracellular concentration of CPAs to a level required for successful vitrification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhua Zhou
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Xiangwei Fu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Guangbin Zhou
- Institute of Animal Genetics and Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Sichuan Agricultural University (Chengdu Campus), Wenjiang 611130, P.R. China
| | - Baoyu Jia
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Yi Fang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Yunpeng Hou
- State Key Laboratory for Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
| | - Shien Zhu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Animal Breeding, Key Laboratory of Animal genetics, Breeding and Reproduction, Ministry of Agriculture, College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P.R. China
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18
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Rodriguez‐Villamil P, Ongaratto FL, Fernandez Taranco M, Bó GA. Solid‐Surface Vitrification and In‐Straw Dilution After Warming of In Vitro‐Produced Bovine Embryos. Reprod Domest Anim 2013; 49:79-84. [DOI: 10.1111/rda.12229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - FL Ongaratto
- Instituto de Reproducción Animal Córdoba (IRAC) Córdoba Argentina
| | - M Fernandez Taranco
- Instituto A.P. de Ciencias Básicas y Aplicadas, Area de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad de Villa María Villa María Córdoba Argentina
| | - GA Bó
- Instituto de Reproducción Animal Córdoba (IRAC) Córdoba Argentina
- Instituto A.P. de Ciencias Básicas y Aplicadas, Area de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidad de Villa María Villa María Córdoba Argentina
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19
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Sivagnanam V, Gijs MAM. Exploring Living Multicellular Organisms, Organs, and Tissues Using Microfluidic Systems. Chem Rev 2013; 113:3214-47. [DOI: 10.1021/cr200432q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin A. M. Gijs
- Laboratory
of Microsystems, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne,
Switzerland
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20
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Forskolin effect on the cryosurvival of in vitro-produced bovine embryos in the presence or absence of fetal calf serum. ZYGOTE 2012; 22:146-57. [DOI: 10.1017/s0967199412000354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
SummaryThe objective of this study was to assess the viability and cryotolerance of zebu embryos produced in vitro with or without the addition of fetal calf serum (FCS) and forskolin (F). Embryos produced in vivo were used as a control. Presumptive zygotes were cultured in modified synthetic oviductal fluid supplemented with amino acids (SOFaa), bovine serum albumin (BSA) and with (2.5%) or without (0%) FCS. On day 6 of growth, the embryos from each group were divided into treatments with or without 10 μM F to induce embryonic lipolysis, comprising a total of four experimental groups: 2.5% FCS, 0% FCS, 2.5% + F and 0% + F. For vitrification, embryos were exposed to vitrification solution 1 (5 M EG (ethylene glycol)) for 3 min and then transferred to vitrification solution 2 (7 M EG, 0.5 M galactose solution and 18% (w/v) Ficoll 70) before being introduced to liquid nitrogen. The presence of FCS in the culture medium resulted in the production of embryos with a similar rate of damaged cells compared with in vivo-produced embryos. After vitrification, the 2.5% FCS group had a significantly higher rate of damaged cells when compared with the other groups (P < 0.05). The results of this experiment indicated that the omission of FCS and the addition of forskolin do not have deleterious effect on embryo production rates. In addition, embryos produced in the presence of FCS had greater sensitivity to cryopreservation, but this effect was reversed when forskolin was added to the medium, which improved embryo survival without affecting embryo development and quality after vitrification.
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Abstract
The objective of the present study was to correlate some parameters (cleavage, blastocyst production, quality degree score, total cell number, fresh apoptosis and lipid content) with embryo survival after cryopreservation. A total of 1727 in vitro-produced bovine blastocysts were used to establish the parameters (mean ± standard error of the mean (SEM)) for cleavage (85.6 ± 0.8), blastocyst production (39.9 ± 1.4), quality degree score (1.6 ± 0.1), total cell number (140.1 ± 2.9), fresh apoptosis (20.8 ± 1.1) and lipid content (21.3 ± 0.8 droplets). On the same way 1316 blastocysts were vitrified for the determination of post-cryopreservation embryo survival (49.4 ± 1.9). Fresh apoptosis rate and total lipid droplets value were correlated (P < 0.05) with embryo survival after cryopreservation (r = 0.91 and r = 0.59; respectively). However, cleavage, blastocyst production, quality degree score and total cell number were not correlated (P > 0.05) with embryo cryotolerance (r = 0.23, r = 0.38, r = 0.22 and r = 0.28; respectively). Therefore, the increased lipid content was moderately correlated with apoptosis in vitrified blastocysts. On the other hand, increased apoptosis in fresh blastocysts was strongly correlated with apoptosis in vitrified blastocysts, which indicated that the apoptosis rate in fresh embryos was a better parameter than the lipid content to predict post-vitrification embryo survival.
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22
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Thorat R, Ingle A. An attempt of cryopreservation of mouse embryos at the ACTREC laboratory animal facility in India. Exp Anim 2012; 61:139-45. [PMID: 22531729 DOI: 10.1538/expanim.61.139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Cryopreservation is the long-term storage of viable cells/tissue in liquid nitrogen. The present study was conducted to freeze 8-cell- to morula-stage mouse embryos from the ACTREC Laboratory Animal Facility using a "slow freezing and fast revival" method. In all, 4,088 embryos were collected from 495 donor female mice of ten different strains. An average recovery of 8 embryos per donor mouse were recorded. Of the 4,088 embryos, 3,946 embryos of normal morphology were frozen in 173 straws. They were cooled down using a controlled-rate freezing assembly, and the straws were directly plunged into liquid nitrogen for long-term storage. Out of these 3,946 frozen embryos, 2,650 were found to be viable after fast revival. The highest survival rate, 81%, was recorded in B6D2F1 hybrid mice, whereas the lowest rate, 51%, was recorded in the S/RV/Cri-ba mutant strain. Out of 2,650 viable embryos, 2,359 embryos (89%) developed to the blastocyst stage after 24 h of incubation in a CO(2) incubator. The developed blastocysts were transferred surgically into 101 pseudopregnant female mice, of which 49 (48.5%) females were found to be pregnant. The highest percentage of pregnancy, 75%, was recorded in C57BL/6NCrl and NIH-III mice, whereas no pregnant recipients were recorded in Ptch, C3H/HeNCrl and NOD SCID mice. Based on the deliveries of these 49 females, an average of 4 young were delivered per female. Improvement in efficiency of freezing, thawing, and surgical transfer of embryos into pseudopregnant females is one of the challenges in such studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Thorat
- Laboratory Animal Facility, Advanced Centre for Treatment, Research and Education in Cancer (ACTREC), Tata Memorial Centre, Kharghar, Navi Mumbai- 410 210, India
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Osmotic challenge and expression of aquaporin 3 and Na/K ATPase genes in bovine embryos produced in vitro. Cryobiology 2011; 63:256-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2011.09.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2011] [Revised: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 09/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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24
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Sudano MJ, Paschoal DM, da Silva Rascado T, Magalhães LCO, Crocomo LF, de Lima-Neto JF, da Cruz Landim-Alvarenga F. Lipid content and apoptosis of in vitro-produced bovine embryos as determinants of susceptibility to vitrification. Theriogenology 2011; 75:1211-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2010.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2010] [Revised: 11/16/2010] [Accepted: 11/16/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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25
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Effects of different cryopreservation methods on post-thaw culture conditions of in vitro produced bovine embryos. ZYGOTE 2011; 20:117-22. [PMID: 21406138 DOI: 10.1017/s0967199410000717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this work was to evaluate the effect of cryopreservation protocols on subsequent development of in vitro produced bovine embryos under different culture conditions. Expanded in vitro produced blastocysts (n = 600) harvested on days 7-9 were submitted to controlled freezing [slow freezing group: 10% ethylene glycol (EG) for 10 min and 1.2°C/min cryopreservation]; quick-freezing [rapid freezing group: 10% EG for 10 min, 20% EG + 20% glycerol (Gly) for 30 s]; or vitrification [vitrification group: 10% EG for 10 min, 25% EG + 25% Gly for 30 s] protocols. Control group embryos were not exposed to cryoprotectant or cryopreservation protocols and the hatching rate was evaluated on day 12 post-insemination. In order to evaluate development, frozen-thawed embryos were subjected to granulosa cell co-culture in TCM199 or SOFaa for 4 days. Data were analyzed by PROC MIXED model using SAS Systems for Windows®. Values were significant at p < 0.05. The hatching rate of the control group was 46.09%. In embryos cultured in TCM199, slow freezing and vitrification group hatching rates were 44.65 ± 5.94% and 9.43 ± 6.77%, respectively. In embryos cultured in SOFaa, slow freezing and vitrification groups showed hatching rates of 11.65 ± 3.37 and 8.67 ± 4.47%, respectively. In contrast, the rapid freezing group embryos did not hatch, regardless of culture medium. The slow freezing group showed higher hatching rates than other cryopreservation groups. Under such conditions, controlled freezing (1.2°C/min) can be an alternative to cryopreservation of in vitro produced bovine embryos.
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Rao BS, Mahesh YU, Suman K, Charan KV, Lakshmikantan U, Gibence HRW, Shivaji S. Meiotic maturation of vitrified immature chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis) oocytes recovered postmortem. Cryobiology 2011; 62:47-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2010.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 12/13/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Abd-Allah SM. Cryopreservation of Intact and Biopsied Buffalo Blastocysts. ASIAN JOURNAL OF ANIMAL AND VETERINARY ADVANCES 2010; 6:29-35. [DOI: 10.3923/ajava.2011.29.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
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28
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AKIYAMA K, KOBAYASHI J, SATO Y, SATA R, OHASHI M, SASAKI E, ODA Y, OGAWA Y, UEDA S, NABENISHI H, MATOBA S. Calf production from vitrified bovine sexed embryos following in-straw dilution. Anim Sci J 2010; 81:461-6. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2010.00763.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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29
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Yacoub AA, Gauly M, Holtz W. Open pulled straw vitrification of goat embryos at various stages of development. Theriogenology 2010; 73:1018-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2009.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2009] [Revised: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 11/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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30
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Hasler JF. Synthetic media for culture, freezing and vitrification of bovine embryos. Reprod Fertil Dev 2010; 22:119-25. [DOI: 10.1071/rd09224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Media designed for the recovery, holding and cryopreservation of bovine and equine embryos are available from several commercial sources. In years past, some of these media contained bovine serum, although inclusion of serum in embryo transfer media is now largely discontinued due to issues relating to storage and biosecurity. Currently, bovine serum albumin (BSA) is included in most commercially manufactured media intended for use in embryo transfer (ET). Although BSA poses less risk than serum for the transmission of infectious disease, its inclusion still entails risk of viral contamination. The present review briefly describes the various components of ET media and the development of efficacious ET media containing no products of animal origin. An evaluation of the efficacy of recovery, holding, slow controlled freezing and vitrification media in both research and commercial ET embryo transfer settings is also presented.
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Kim MS, Bae CY, Wee G, Han YM, Park JK. A microfluidicin vitrocultivation system for mechanical stimulation of bovine embryos. Electrophoresis 2009; 30:3276-82. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.200900157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Manjunatha BM, Ravindra JP, Gupta PS, Devaraj M, Honnappa TG, Krishnaswamy A. Post-thaw development of in vitro produced buffalo embryos cryopreserved by cytoskeletal stabilization and vitrification. J Vet Sci 2009; 10:153-6. [PMID: 19461211 PMCID: PMC2801116 DOI: 10.4142/jvs.2009.10.2.153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study was conducted to examine post-thaw in vitro developmental competence of buffalo embryos cryopreserved by cytoskeletal stabilization and vitrification. In vitro produced embryos were incubated with a medium containing cytochalasin-b (cyto-b) in a CO2 incubator for 40 min for microfilament stabilization and were cryopreserved by a two-step vitrification method at 24℃ in the presence of cyto-b. Initially, the embryos were exposed to 10% ethylene glycol (EG) and 10% dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) in a base medium for 4 min. After the initial exposure, the embryos were transferred to a 7 µl drop of 25% EG and 25% DMSO in base medium and 0.3 M sucrose for 45 sec. After warming, the embryos were cultured in vitro for 72 h. The post-thaw in vitro developmental competence of the cyto-b-treated embryos did not differ significantly from those vitrified without cyto-b treatment. The hatching rates of morulae vitrified without cyto-b treatment was significantly lower than the non-vitrified control. However, the hatching rate of cyto-b-treated vitrified morulae did not differ significantly from the non-vitrified control. This study demonstrates that freezing of buffalo embryos by cytoskeletal stabilization and vitrification is a reliable method for long-term preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Manjunatha
- Department of Animal Reproduction, Veterinary College, Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fishery Sciences University, Bangalore, India.
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Effect of vitrification medium composition and exposure time on post-thaw development of buffalo embryos produced in vitro. Vet J 2009; 179:287-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2007] [Revised: 08/15/2007] [Accepted: 08/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Campos-Chillòn L, Suh T, Barcelo-Fimbres M, Seidel G, Carnevale E. Vitrification of early-stage bovine and equine embryos. Theriogenology 2009; 71:349-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2008] [Revised: 07/23/2008] [Accepted: 08/04/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Saki G, Rahim F, Moradi L. The study of developmental capacity of vitrified mouse blastocysts in different straws after transfer to mouse pseudo pregnant. Pak J Biol Sci 2008; 11:1809-14. [PMID: 18817221 DOI: 10.3923/pjbs.2008.1809.1814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Vitrification is the commonly used method for long-term storage of pre-implantation mammalian embryos. It is an essential part of assisted reproductive technologies. The re-expansion rate, pregnancy and birth rate of vitrified blastocysts using CPS were compared with OPS and Conventional Straw. Female NMRI mice were injected with Gonadotrophins in order induce them for super ovulation. At that time the mice were sacrified by cervical dislocation and dissected of mouse abdomen. The uterine horns were existed blastocysts were collected in PBS and randomly allocated to four groups: vitrification in CPS, conventional straw, OPS and untreated controls. The vitrification solution was EFS40%. After storage for 1 month in liquid nitrogen, the blastocysts were thawed in 0.5 M sucrose for in vitro culture in M16 medium. After 6 h of culture, the numbers of expanded blastocysts was recorded and ready for transfer to uterus of pseudo pregnant mouse. The re-expansion rate of the CPS group (72.1%) was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than OPS (52.55) and C.S. (38.6%) groups. The pregnancy (70%) and birth rate (45%) of blastocysts in CPS were similar to those of fresh blastocysts (80% and 45.5%) and the pregnancy (10%) and birth rate (5.1%) in Conventional Straws lower than OPS (20 and 7.5%), but were not significantly different. Mouse blastocysts vitrified using CPS had a better result compared with OPS and Conventional Straw. The value of CPS for vitrification of blastocysts may also merit investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghasem Saki
- Laboratory of Cell Culture, Faculty of Medicine, Ahwaz Jondishapour University of Medical Sciences (AJUMS), Ahwaz, Iran
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Merlo B, Iacono E, Regazzini M, Zambelli D. Cat blastocysts produced in vitro from oocytes vitrified using the cryoloop technique and cryopreserved electroejaculated semen. Theriogenology 2008; 70:126-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2007] [Revised: 03/03/2008] [Accepted: 03/09/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Thundathil J, Whiteside D, Shea B, Ludbrook D, Elkin B, Nishi J. Preliminary assessment of reproductive technologies in wood bison (Bison bison athabascae): Implications for preserving genetic diversity. Theriogenology 2007; 68:93-9. [PMID: 17498795 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2007.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2006] [Accepted: 04/05/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Since the high prevalence of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis in free-ranging wood bison in the Canadian north poses a threat to nearby healthy bison populations, commercial bison and cattle ranches, and potentially to humans, there is considerable impetus to salvage the genetics of infected bison and maintain a disease-free herd. In that regard, there is a great need to develop appropriate reproductive technologies. Therefore, the objective of this study was to develop protocols to produce and cryopreserve wood bison embryos (based on protocols used for cattle). Cumulus oocyte complexes (COC) aspirated from ovaries recovered after slaughter were matured in vitro, and fertilized with either frozen-thawed semen or chilled epididymal spermatozoa. Although both sources of spermatozoa resulted in acceptable rates of fertilization (64.4%, n=45; 89.2%, n=28, respectively) and cleavage (75.0%, n=40; 92.5%, n=40), production of morulae (7.5%, n=40; 25.0%, n=40) and blastocysts (7.5%, n=40; 10.0%, n=40) was low. Morulae- and blastocyst-stage embryos were frozen-stored by vitrification. To our knowledge, this is the first report regarding the in vitro production and cryopreservation of bison embryos for genetic recovery of diseased wood bison. These techniques have substantial potential for conserving and managing the genetic diversity of wild bison, and may also have important management implications for genetic salvage of diseased bison populations in North America.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Thundathil
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada T2N 4N1.
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Barceló-Fimbres M, Seidel GE. Effects of fetal calf serum, phenazine ethosulfate and either glucose or fructose during in vitro culture of bovine embryos on embryonic development after cryopreservation. Mol Reprod Dev 2007; 74:1395-405. [PMID: 17342731 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.20699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated effects of hexoses, fetal calf serum (FCS), and phenazine ethosulfate (PES) during the culture of bovine embryos on blastocyst development and survival after cryopreservation by slow freezing or vitrification. The basal, control medium was chemically defined (CDM) plus 0.5% fatty acid-free BSA. In vitro-produced bovine zygotes were cultured in CDM-1 with 0.5 mM glucose; after 60 hr, 8-cell embryos were cultured 4.5 days in CDM-2. The 8-cell embryos were randomly allocated to a 2 x 3 x 2 x 3 factorial experimental design with two energy substrates (2 mM glucose or fructose); three additives (0.3 microM PES, 10% FCS, and control); two cryopreservation methods using no animal products (conventional slow freezing or vitrification); and semen from three bulls with two replicates for each bull. A total of 1,107 blastocysts were produced. Fructose resulted in 13% more blastocysts per oocyte than glucose (37.2% vs. 32.9%), and per 8-cell embryo (51.3% vs. 45.3%; P < 0.01). No differences were found for additives (P > 0.1) control, FCS, or PES for blastocysts per oocyte or per 8-cell embryo. There was a significant interaction (P < 0.05) between additives and hexoses for blastocyst production; although trends were similar, the benefit of fructose compared to glucose was greater for controls than for FCS or PES. Culture of embryos with PES, which reduces cytoplasmic lipid content, improved cryotolerance of bovine embryos; post-cryopreservation survival of blastocysts averaged over vitrification and slow freezing (between which there was no difference) was 91.9%, 84.9%, and 60.2% of unfrozen controls (P < 0.01) for PES, control, and FCS groups, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Barceló-Fimbres
- Animal Reproduction and Biotechnology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA
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Walker DJ, Campos-Chillon LF, Seidel GE. Vitrification of In Vitro-produced Bovine Embryos by Addition of Ethylene Glycol in One-step. Reprod Domest Anim 2006; 41:467-71. [PMID: 16984354 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0531.2006.00699.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to simplify two-step addition of cryoprotectant for vitrification of bovine embryos by developing a one-step procedure. Survival was calculated as a percentage of non-vitrified controls developed from the same batch of oocytes. In experiment 1, bovine blastocysts were vitrified following one- or two-step addition of cryoprotectant. Exposure of embryos to cryoprotectant in one-step resulted in survival rates not significantly lower (p > 0.1) than those obtained by two-step addition (85% vs 98%, respectively). Based on these results, experiments 2-4 were designed to test one-step addition of cryoprotectant more rigorously. Experiment 2 exposed day 7 blastocysts to 6, 7 or 8 M ethylene glycol for 2.5 or 3.5 min. At 24 h post-vitrification, survival of embryos was similar, irrespective of ethylene glycol concentration or exposure time (6 M 38%, 7 M 51%, 8 M 59%; 2.5 min 54%, 3.5 min 45%). In experiment 3, blastocysts were exposed to 7 M ethylene glycol for shorter times (30 or 60 s); 30 s exposure resulted in decreased survival (8% vs 31%, p < 0.05). Experiment 4 concerned one-step addition of cryoprotectant to day 6 bovine morulae, exposed to 7 M ethylene glycol for 1 or 1.5 min. There was no difference in survival between exposure times of 1 or 1.5 min (28% vs 45%, respectively; p > 0.1). It is unclear why many embryos survive vitrification with one-step addition of cryoprotectant, but others do not. Although, one-step addition of cryoprotectant simplifies the vitrification procedure, survival rates were inadequate for routine cryopreservation of in vitro-produced bovine embryos.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Walker
- Animal Reproduction and Biotechnology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
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Abstract
Numerous studies indicate that in vitro-produced bovine embryos do not survive cryopreservation as well as those produced in vivo. Furthermore, embryos cultured in vitro in the absence of blood serum are more cryotolerant than embryos cultured in media containing serum. Although in vivo-produced embryos are more cryotolerant, there appear to be breed differences. Most if not all of these observations are correlated with cytoplasmic lipid content of embryos; more and larger lipid droplets are associated with reduced cryotolerance. This review concerns strategies for modifying oocytes and embryos to increase cryosurvival. Reduction of cytoplasmic lipid content of embryos with phenazine ethosulfate (PES), a compound that oxidizes NADPH, even improved cryotolerance of bovine embryos cultured in the absence of serum. Whether cytoplasmic lipid content per se or associated changes in lipid composition of cell membranes are responsible for differences in cryotolerance is unknown. Increasing cholesterol content of membranes of sperm and oocytes via cholesterol-loaded cyclodextrin also appears to improve cryotolerance. While lipids have been emphasized and appear to be important, non-lipid aspects of cell composition also likely affect cryotolerance, and might be modified to improve cryotolerance. Additional research on mechanisms of variation in cryotolerance will be applicable to circumvent cryo-intolerance attributable to variation associated with the individual animal, breed, species, cell type, and factors such as nutrition and season of the year.
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Affiliation(s)
- George E Seidel
- Animal Reproduction and Biotechnology Laboratory, ARBL Building, Foothills Campus, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1683, USA.
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