Artificial gametes

Artificial Gametes and Human Reproduction in the 21st Century: An Ethical Analysis

Artificial gametes, derived from stem cells, have the potential to enable in vitro fertilization of embryos. Currently, artificial gametes are only being generated in laboratory animals; however, considerable efforts are underway to develop artificial gametes using human cell sources. These artificial gametes are being proposed as a means to address infertility through assisted reproductive technologies. Nonetheless, the availability of artificial gametes obtained from adult organisms can potentially expand the possibilities of reproduction. Various groups, such as same-sex couples, post-menopausal women, and deceased donors, could potentially utilize artificial gametes to conceive genetically related offspring. The advent of artificial gametes raises significant bioethical questions. Should all these reproductive scenarios be accepted? How can we delineate the range of future reproductive choices? A normative bioethical framework may be necessary to establish a consensus regarding the use of human artificial gametes. This review aims to present the current state of research on the biological roadmap for generating artificial gametes, while also summarizing proposed approaches to establish a normative framework that delineates ethically acceptable paths for reproduction.

Artificial Oocyte: Development and Potential Application

Millions of people around the world suffer from infertility, with the number of infertile couples and individuals increasing every year. Assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have been widely developed in recent years; however, some patients are unable to benefit from these technologies due to their lack of functional germ cells. Therefore, the development of alternative methods seems necessary. One of these methods is to create artificial oocytes. Oocytes can be generated in vitro from the ovary, fetal gonad, germline stem cells (GSCs), ovarian stem cells, or pluripotent stem cells (PSCs). This approach has raised new hopes in both basic research and medical applications. In this article, we looked at the principle of oocyte development, the landmark studies that enhanced our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms that govern oogenesis in vivo, as well as the mechanisms underlying in vitro generation of functional oocytes from different sources of mouse and human stem cells. In addition, we introduced next-generation ART using somatic cells with artificial oocytes. Finally, we provided an overview of the reproductive application of in vitro oogenesis and its use in human fertility.

Fertility sparing in cancer patients

Infertility can arise as a consequence of treatment of oncological conditions. As cancer survival rates continue to improve, many women will face infertility after successful treatment of their malignant diseases. This review summarizes the current state of different fertility preservation options in these patients. This review will discuss the premature ovarian failure and other adverse reproductive outcomes in female patients who receive chemotherapy and radiation. In addition, cancer-specific fertility preservation methods are presented. Embryo cryopreservation is a well established technique to preserve fertility. However, it requires delaying cancer treatment for two to six weeks and a partner or willingness to use donor sperm. When these criteria cannot be met, more experimental options include oocyte cryopreservation for later IVF and ovarian tissue cryopreservation. In-vitro maturation is a promising technology and can be applied in combination with oocyte or ovarian tissue cryopreservation. Ovarian transposition remains the standard option for women undergoing pelvic radiation. Lastly, the efficacy of GnRH analoga in ovarian protection during chemotherapy has still not been proved. As fertility preservation choices include both established and experimental methods, a highly individualized approach is required in the management of patients looking for fertility preservation options.

An organism arises from every nucleus

The fact that, cloning using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) method has been performed, opened new horizons for cloning, and changed the way of our understanding and approach to cell and nucleus. The progress in cloning technology, brought the anticipation of the ability to clone an organism from each somatic cell nucleus. Therefore, the 'Cell Theory' is about to take the additional statement as "An organism arises from every nucleus". The development of gene targeting procedures which can be applied with SCNT, showed us that it may be possible to obtain different versions of the original genetic constitution of a cell. Because of this opportunity which is provided by SCNT, in reproductive cloning, it would be possible to clone enhanced organisms which can adapt to different environmental conditions and survive. Furthermore, regaining the genetic characteristics of ancestors or reverse herediter variations would be possible. On the other hand, in therapeutic cloning, more precise and easily obtainable alternatives for cell replacement therapy could be presented. However, while producing healthier or different organisms from a nucleus, it is hard to foresee the side effects influencing natural processes in long term is rather difficult.

Modelling germ cell development in vitro

Germ cells have a critical role in mediating the generation of genetic diversity and transmitting this information across generations. Furthermore, gametogenesis is unique as a developmental process in that it generates highly-specialized haploid gametes from diploid precursor stem cells through meiosis. Despite the importance of this process, progress in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underpinning mammalian germ cell development has been retarded by the lack of an efficient and reproducible system of in vitro culture for the expansion and trans-meiotic differentiation of germline cells. The dearth of such a culture system has rendered the study of germ cell biology refractory to the application of new high-throughput technologies such as RNA interference, leaving in vivo gene-targeting approaches as the only option to determine the function of genes believed to be involved in gametogenesis. Recent reports detailing the derivation of gametes in vitro from stem cells may provide the first steps in developing new tools to solve this problem. This review considers the developments made in modelling germ cell development using stem cells, and some of the challenges that need to be overcome to make this a useful tool for studying gametogenesis and to realize any future clinical application.