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Bertin FR, Frank N, Breuhaus BA, Schott HC, Kritchevsky JE. Diagnosis and management of thyroid disorders and thyroid hormone supplementation in adult horses and foals. Equine Vet J 2024; 56:243-252. [PMID: 37533378 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
Equine thyroid disorders pose a diagnostic challenge in clinical practice because of the effects of nonthyroidal factors on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, and the horse's ability to tolerate wide fluctuations in thyroid hormone concentrations and survive without a thyroid gland. While benign thyroid tumours are common in older horses, other disorders like primary hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism in adult horses and congenital hypothyroidism in foals are rare. There is a common misunderstanding regarding hypothyroidism in adult horses, especially when associated with the clinical profile of obesity, lethargy, and poor performance observed in dogs and humans. Low blood thyroid hormone concentrations are often detected in horses as a secondary response to metabolic and disease states, including with the nonthyroidal illness syndrome; however, it is important to note that low thyroid hormone concentrations in these cases do not necessarily indicate hypothyroidism. Assessing equine thyroid function involves measuring thyroid hormone concentrations, including total and free fractions of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3); however, interpreting these results can be challenging due to the pulsatile secretion of thyroid hormones and the many factors that can affect their concentrations. Dynamic testing, such as the thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test, can help assess the thyroid gland response to stimulation. Although true hypothyroidism is extremely rare, thyroid hormone supplementation is commonly used in equine practice to help manage obesity and poor performance. This review focuses on thyroid gland pathophysiology in adult horses and foals, interpretation of blood thyroid hormone concentrations, and evaluation of horses with thyroid disorders. It also discusses the use of T4 supplementation in equine practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- François-René Bertin
- School of Veterinary Science at The University of Queensland, UQ Gatton Campus, Gatton, Queensland, Australia
| | - Nicholas Frank
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi, USA
| | - Babetta A Breuhaus
- College of Veterinary Medicine at North Caroline State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Harold C Schott
- College of Veterinary Medicine at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, USA
| | - Janice E Kritchevsky
- College of Veterinary Medicine at Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
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Adaptive Responses of Thyroid Hormones, Insulin, and Glucose during Pregnancy and Lactation in Dairy Cows. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12111395. [PMID: 35681859 PMCID: PMC9179583 DOI: 10.3390/ani12111395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The study examined the effects of different stages of pregnancy and lactation on thyroid, insulin, and glucose responses in dairy cows. In the present study, 30 dairy cows (10 Holstein, 10 Simmental, and 10 Brown) at 30 ± 20 d of lactation were randomly selected and blood samples were collected once every 60 d for one year to measure circulating thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), total and free triiodothyronines (T3, fT3) and thyroxines (T4, fT4), insulin, and glucose. Pregnant cows showed higher T4 (p = 0.010) and insulin (p = 0.046) concentrations at >180 d than at >60−120 d of pregnancy and in nonpregnant cows. Along the lactation phase, circulating T4 concentrations showed a biphasic trend, decreasing from 0−60 d to >60−120 d phase, which showed the lowest values, and then increasing until the end of lactation (>300 d) (p = 0.016). Glucose showed the highest concentrations at the start of lactation (0−120 days) and the lowest values at the end (p = 0.008). The monitoring of thyroid hormones, insulin, and glucose changes represents an important tool to evaluate the anabolic and/or catabolic adaptation in response to functional periods in dairy cows, which can potentially predispose the cows to an excessive negative energy balance and related metabolic issues.
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Liotta L, Bionda A, Quartuccio M, De Nardo F, Visalli R, Fazio E. Thyroid and Lipidic Profiles in Nicastrese Goats ( Capra hircus) during Pregnancy and Postpartum Period. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:2386. [PMID: 34438843 PMCID: PMC8388782 DOI: 10.3390/ani11082386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the thyroid and lipid profiles in 30 Nicastrese goats, along different physiological periods: before mating (nonpregnant goats), during the whole pregnancy (pregnant goats), and during postpartum and early lactation (milking goats). Blood samples were collected monthly from March 2020 to January 2021. Serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), total and free triiodothyronine (T3, fT3), and thyroxine (T4, fT4) concentrations were measured using immunoenzymatic assay kits and serum lipid panels (triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (tCho)) by enzymatic colorimetric method; very-low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (VLDL Cho) was calculated. Pregnant and milking goats showed the lower T3 (p < 0.0002) and T4 (p < 0.0005) concentrations, with lower BCS (p < 0.001) only in pregnant ones. Milking goats showed tCho (p < 0.006) concentrations lower than nonpregnant ones, and TG and VLDL Cho (p < 0.001) lower than both pregnant and nonpregnant goats. T4:T3 and T3:fT3 were significantly and positively correlated in both pregnancy and lactation. Under similar environmental, nutrition, and management conditions, different physiological phases play a significant role in the thyroid and lipid profiles in Nicastrese goats. These endocrine and metabolic resources could contribute to the knowledge useful for the salvage of this endangered, local, native breed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luigi Liotta
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 13, 98168 Messina, Italy; (L.L.); (M.Q.); (E.F.)
| | - Arianna Bionda
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 13, 98168 Messina, Italy; (L.L.); (M.Q.); (E.F.)
| | - Marco Quartuccio
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 13, 98168 Messina, Italy; (L.L.); (M.Q.); (E.F.)
| | - Floro De Nardo
- RARE, Italian Association of Endangered Local Breeds, Via Lorenzo Calogero, 2, 88046 Lamezia Terme, Italy;
| | - Rosanna Visalli
- BIOGENE, Veterinary Diagnostic Center, Via Giacomo Leopardi, 50, 95127 Catania, Italy;
| | - Esterina Fazio
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Palatucci, 13, 98168 Messina, Italy; (L.L.); (M.Q.); (E.F.)
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Robeck TR, Amaral RS, da Silva VMF, Martin AR, Montano GA, Brown JL. Thyroid hormone concentrations associated with age, sex, reproductive status and apparent reproductive failure in the Amazon river dolphin ( Inia geoffrensis). CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 7:coz041. [PMID: 31384468 PMCID: PMC6669313 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study was conducted to characterize immunoreactive thyroid hormone concentrations in wild Amazon river dolphins, also called boto (Inia geoffrensis) by age group, sex, pregnancy and lactation status, and to determine if thyroid hormone concentration differences could be detected between pregnant females with and without successful parturition outcomes. Radioimmunoassays were used to analyse total T 3 and total T 4 in 182 serum samples collected from 172 botos living in the Mamirauá Sustainable Development Reserve, in the Brazilian Amazon from 2003 through 2015. Age significantly affected tT 3 and tT 4 concentrations in males, with values in immature males and females being significantly lower than those in adult males, whereas no age effects were noted between immature females and adult non-pregnant, non-lactating females. Significant sex differences were noted in tT 3 concentrations between immature males and females and in tT 4 concentrations between adult males and females. These resulted in significant differences in the tT 3:tT 4 ratio between males and females within the immature and adult groups. Lactating and non-pregnant adult females had significantly higher tT 3 concentrations than pregnant females, and this difference was primarily driven by a 12% drop in tT 3 concentrations during the last two-thirds of pregnancy. No differences in thyroid hormone concentrations were detected between females diagnosed as pregnant and later found to have or not have a live calf. These results are the first to define thyroid hormone reference intervals and normal physiological variations in a wild population of river dolphins.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R Robeck
- Species Preservation Laboratory, SeaWorld Parks and Entertainment, 2595 Ingraham Rd, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - R S Amaral
- Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Amazonas—IFAM/CMZL, Av. Cosme Ferreira 8045, Manaus 69086-475, Brazil
| | - V M F da Silva
- Laboratory of Aquatic Mammals, National Institute of Amazonian Research—INPA, Av Andre Araujo 2936, Manaus 69067-375, Brazil
| | - A R Martin
- Centre for Remote Environments, University of Dundee, Nethergate, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
| | - G A Montano
- Species Preservation Laboratory, SeaWorld Parks and Entertainment, 2595 Ingraham Rd, San Diego, CA 92109, USA
| | - J L Brown
- Center for Species Survival, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, 1500 Remount Road, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
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Bertin FR, Eichstadt Forsythe L, Kritchevsky JE. Effects of high doses of levothyroxine sodium on serum concentrations of triiodothyronine and thyroxine in horses. Am J Vet Res 2019; 80:565-571. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.80.6.565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Fazio E, Cravana C, Medica P, Quartuccio M, Tripodina S, Satué K. A Wide Range of Endocrine and Hematochemical Changes in the Reproductive Process of Early Pregnant Mares. J Equine Vet Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Ferlazzo A, Cravana C, Fazio E, Medica P. The contribution of total and free iodothyronines to welfare maintenance and management stress coping in Ruminants and Equines: Physiological ranges and reference values. Res Vet Sci 2018; 118:134-143. [PMID: 29428703 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
In order to acquire a pattern of thyroid involvement in welfare maintenance in Ruminants and Equines, this review summarizes data concerning the reference values of total and free iodothyronines and their modifications in physiological conditions and in different management conditions (pregnancy, lactation, weaning, growth, isolation, restraint, shearing, confinement and transportation). Thyroidal and extrathyroidal tissues efficiently respond to management practices, giving a differentiated contribution to circulating iodothyronine changes. The hormonal response could be mainly attributed to the intracellular deiodination of T4 to T3. Triiodothyronine (T3) and free iodothyronines (fT3 and fT4) result more responsive to management stress, showing different pattern with species and to various conditions, as to environmental conditions in which activities are performed. Intrinsic seasonal changes of iodothyronines and a significant pregnancy effect for T3 were recorded in mares. Higher, although not significant, T3 and T4 concentrations in barren than pregnant mares were observed in donkeys. A positive significant correlation between T3 and T4 was described only in pregnant donkeys. Moreover, a significant effect of season on T3 and fT3 changes was observed both in pregnant and barren donkeys. A significant lactating effect compared with nonlactating stage for T3 and T4 was recorded in mares. In growing foals, body weight (BW) and age were positively correlated with T3 and negatively correlated with T4, fT4 and fT3. Weaning effects were shown for T3 and fT4 concentrations, indicating that weaning represents a severe stress and the presence of conspecific does not reduce psychological stress in this phase. Lambs showed significant decreased T3 and elevated T4 concentrations two weeks after weaning, with higher concentrations in both males and females compared to 24 h. Significant positive correlations were observed between BW and T4, fT3 and fT4 concentrations in lambs. A T3 decrease was detected after isolation, such as induced by confinement and weaning in lambs. Higher T3 concentration after restraint and shearing than after isolation and significant increases in T4, fT3 and fT4 values after restraint and shearing were recorded. The basal concentrations of fT3 in both the inexperienced and experienced transported horses were significantly higher than in untransported experienced horses. Moreover, increases of T3, T4 and fT4 after short road transportation, and significant correlations between T3 and rectal temperature (RT), body weight (BW) and heart rate (HR), confirmed their important role in coping strategy. Thyroid responsiveness to short transport is similar in domestic donkeys and horses, with a preferential release of T3 in horses. A greatest and constant release of T3 and T4, although differentiated, after simulated transportation and after conventional transport of horses confirmed that the degree of stress induced by confinement and additional stressful stimuli associated to road transportation could differently influence the iodothyronine release. Temperamental Limousin young beef bulls showed lower T4 and fT4 concentrations after prolonged transportation than calm subjects, and a concomitant decrease of circulating ACTH, cortisol, T3 and fT3 concentrations, probably induced by down regulation of HPA axis and cortisol negative feedback. These data reinforce the importance of taking into account the evaluation of iodothyronines, and notably of T3, as markers of welfare and stress and their role in ensuring energy homeostasis and productive and reproductive performances in Ruminants and Equines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Ferlazzo
- Department of Animal Veterinary Sciences, Messina University, Polo Universitario Annunziata, 98168 Messina, Italy.
| | - Cristina Cravana
- Department of Animal Veterinary Sciences, Messina University, Polo Universitario Annunziata, 98168 Messina, Italy
| | - Esterina Fazio
- Department of Animal Veterinary Sciences, Messina University, Polo Universitario Annunziata, 98168 Messina, Italy
| | - Pietro Medica
- Department of Animal Veterinary Sciences, Messina University, Polo Universitario Annunziata, 98168 Messina, Italy
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