Determinants for conducting food safety culture research

Assessing reliability and validity of food safety culture assessment tools

Since its recognition as a plausible direction to assure food safety, food safety culture research has evolved with several commercial and scientific assessment tools developed to evaluate the food safety culture in food businesses. However, existing research does not specify the validity and reliability checks required to demonstrate rigor in the tool development process and there is no unified methodology to confirm robustness of the tools to ensure trustworthiness and usefulness of findings and inferences generated. The purpose of the study was to develop a method to evaluate food safety culture assessment tools and to assess the reliability and validity of existing food safety culture assessment tools using the developed method. Eleven elements were found to be key in validating food safety culture assessment tools. Of the eight tools assessed, only one tool (CT2) was validated on each of the elements. The depth of validation strategies differed for each tool. Three out of the five commercial tools published peer reviewed publications that demonstrated the validation checks that were done. Face validation, and pilot testing were evident and appeared to be done the most. Whilst content, ecological, and cultural validity were the least validated for scientific tools, factor analysis and reliability checks were the least evaluated for commercial tools. None of the tools were assessed for postdictive validity, concurrent validity and the correlation coefficient relating to construct validity. Having an established science-based approach is key as it provides a way to determine the trustworthiness of established assessment tools against accepted methods.

Effectiveness of Online Food-Safety Educational Programs: A Systematic Review, Random-Effects Meta-Analysis, and Thematic Synthesis

Online food-safety educational programs are increasingly important to educate different populations as technology and culture shift to using more technology. However, the broad effectiveness of these programs has yet to be examined. A systematic review, random-effects meta-analysis, and thematic synthesis are conducted to identify the effect size of online food-safety educational programs on knowledge, attitudes, and practices of consumers, food workers, and students and their respective barriers and recommendations. Online food-safety education was found to be of moderate and low effectiveness, with attitudes being the lowest in all populations. Consumers struggled with staying focused, and it was found that messaging should focus on risk communication. Students struggled with social isolation and a lack of time, and it was recommended that videos be used. Food workers struggled with a lack of time for training and difficulty understanding the material, and future programs are recommended to implement shorter but more frequent trainings with simple language. Future online food-safety educational programs should focus on incorporating social elements, as they can remain a huge barrier to learning. They should also focus on changing the participant's attitude to risk perception and beliefs in the importance of food safety.

The Relationship between Food Safety Culture Maturity and Cost of Quality: An Empirical Pilot Study in the Food Industry

In the food industry, a mature food safety culture (FSC) is linked to better food safety performance. However, the relationship between FSC maturity and key economical performance indicators, such as cost allocation, remains unexplored. This research is the first pilot study to empirically explore the association between FSC maturity and cost of quality (CoQ). A CoQ survey was developed and pretested. CoQ data were collected through collaboration with company management. FSC maturity was assessed through a validated mixed-method assessment (diagnostic instrument, questionnaires, and interviews). A convenience sample of five food processing companies was assembled and subjected to FSC and CoQ assessment. Results revealed that monitoring CoQ is not yet standard practice in the food industry: three out of five companies were unable to specify all failure costs. For prevention and appraisal costs, results showed descriptively and statistically that when these costs are higher, FSC is more mature. Considering the theoretical context of the research (CoQ models and available literature), these results present the first empirical evidence to substantiate that FSC could replace product/service quality in CoQ models. Findings justify the push for a shift in perception, from considering FSC as a task on the list of resource demanding activities toward a narrative in which FSC contributes to financial health.

A web-based microbiological hazard identification tool for infant foods

An integrated approach to identify and assess Microbiological Hazards (MHs) and mitigate risks in infant food chains is crucial to ensure safe foods for infants and young children. A systematic procedure was developed to identify MHs in specific infant foods. This includes five major steps: 1) relevant hazard-food pairing, 2) process inactivation efficiency, 3) recontamination possibility after processing, 4) MHs growth opportunity, and 5) MHs-food association level. These steps were integrated into an online tool called the Microbiological Hazards IDentification (MiID) decision support system (DSS), targeting food companies, governmental agencies and academia users, and is accessible at https://foodmicrobiologywur.shinyapps.io/Microbial_hazards_ID/. The MiID DSS was validated in four case studies, focussing on infant formula, fruit puree, cereal-based meals, and fresh fruits, each representing distinct products and processing characteristics. The results obtained through the application of the MiID DSS, compared with identification by food safety experts, consistently identified the top MHs in these food products. This process affirms its effectiveness in systematic hazard identification. The introduction of the MiID DSS helps to structure the first steps in HACCP (hazard analysis) and in risk assessment (hazard identification) to follow a structured and well-documented procedure, balancing the risk of overlooking relevant MHs or including too many irrelevant MHs. It is a valuable addition to risk analysis/assessment in infant food chains and has the potential for future extension. This includes the incorporation of newly acquired data related to infant foods via a semi-publicly hosted platform, or it can be adapted for hazard identification in general food products using a similar framework.

Food Safety Knowledge among Professional Food Handlers in Slovenia: The Results of a Nation-Wide Survey

The authors present and discuss the results of a nation-wide survey on food safety knowledge among professional food handlers in Slovenia. The data were collected via a telephone survey using a well-established questionnaire adapted to the Slovenian context. Altogether, 601 respondents from hotels, restaurants, catering, and confectionery units completed the questionnaire. To assess food safety knowledge among food handlers in both general and specific domains, three indexes (a General Knowledge Index, a Personal Knowledge Index, and a Temperature Knowledge Index) were created. Among them, the Temperature Knowledge Index revealed the largest gaps in knowledge. An insufficient transfer of food safety knowledge from managers and chefs to assistant chefs and kitchen assistants in establishments where more persons handle food was evident, while a course titled "Hygiene Minimum" of standardised training from the past still significantly contributes to food safety knowledge. The results suggest a need for improvement in the current system of food safety training courses for professional food handlers in Slovenia. The human factor in the food supply chain still has a significant role in ensuring food safety culture, and therefore must become a more important part of the food safety management system.

Investigating Motivators for Managing Customers with Food Allergies in Ethnic Restaurants

ABSTRACT

Food allergic reactions frequently occur in ethnic restaurants. However, effective training materials specific to food allergies have not been readily available to employees. The objectives of the study were to investigate employee self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility, and commitment on the basis of individual and operational factors and what variables, among self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility, and commitment, are associated with the employee's intention to reduce risky behavior when handling food allergies in ethnic restaurants. A total of 256 employees who had or are currently working in ethnic restaurants and had direct contact with food or customers participated in this study through the Amazon Mechanical Turk Web site from October 2020 to April 2021. The statistical analysis results showed that employee self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility, and commitment vary on the basis of gender, food safety certification, training, and availability of menu items for customers with food allergies. In addition, employee self-efficacy, perceived susceptibility, and commitment are positively correlated with employee's risk reduction behavior for food allergies. The results of the study will provide practical guidelines for developing more multidimensional training programs specific to food allergies in ethnic restaurants.

HIGHLIGHTS

An Exploratory Study on the Relation between Companies’ Food Integrity Climate and Employees’ Food Integrity Behavior in Food Businesses

Given the need to prevent food fraud within the international food supply chain and the current lack of research on food integrity, in this paper, the relation between the organizational food integrity climate and employees’ food integrity behavior is examined to understand the role of the individual or psychological dimension in food integrity. The construct of food integrity behavior was introduced and defined, and the conceptual model of the food integrity climate in relation to food integrity behavior was elaborated along with study variables and hypotheses. In the proposed model, the potential moderating role of employees’ psychological well-being (i.e., burnout and job stress) was analyzed, and two mediating variables were also proposed (i.e., knowledge and motivation) which both could explain how the prevailing food integrity climate might influence employees’ food integrity behavior. Data was collected through convenience sampling in four Belgian food companies with a total of 118 participating employees through a self-assessment questionnaire. Based on the statistical analysis, it was concluded that a well-developed organizational food integrity climate promotes positive employees’ food integrity behavior. Specifically, results of this semi-quantitative study demonstrated that the companies’ food integrity climate is positively related to the employees’ food integrity behavior both directly and indirectly, and that food integrity knowledge is a partial mediator in the relation between food integrity climate and food integrity behavior, while food integrity motivation is a full mediator. Study limitations and implications are also discussed.

Branched poly(ethylenimine) carbon dots-MnO2 nanosheets based fluorescent sensory system for sensing of malachite green in fish samples

Malachite green (MG) is an organic dye compound that is frequently used as a fungicide and antiseptic in aquaculture. However, human or animal exposure to MG causes carcinogenic, teratogenic and mutagenic effects. Herein, a novel fluorescent assay was designed for the detection of MG using manganese dioxide nanosheets (MnO₂ NS) as an energy acceptor to quench the fluorescence of branched poly(ethylenimine) carbon dots (BPEI-CDs) via Förster resonance energy transfer. When butyrylcholinesterase is introduced to form thiocholine in the presence of S-butyrylthiocholine iodide, MnO₂ NS can be recovered by thiocholine to Mn²⁺, resulting in restoration of the fluorescence of BPEI-CDs. Exploiting these changes in fluorescence intensity in the above system, a fluorescence probe was successfully developed for the quantitative detection of MG. Besides, this assay was applied to fish samples, verifying the high potential for practical application of the proposed sensor for the monitoring of MG in aquatic products.

Conceptualizing the Contextual Dynamics of Safety Climate and Safety Culture Research: A Comparative Scientometric Analysis

Safety climate and safety culture are important research domains in risk and safety science, and various industry and service sectors show significant interest in, and commitment to, applying its concepts, theories, and methods to enhance organizational safety performance. Despite the large body of literature on these topics, there are disagreements about the scope and focus of these concepts, and there is a lack of systematic understanding of their development patterns and the knowledge domains on which these are built. This article presents a comparative analysis of the literature focusing on safety climate and safety culture, using various scientometric analysis approaches and tools. General development patterns are identified, including the publication trends, in terms of temporal and geographical activity, the science domains in which safety culture and safety climate research occurs, and the scientific domains and articles that have primarily influenced their respective development. It is found that the safety culture and safety climate domains show strong similarities, e.g., in dominant application domains and frequently occurring terms. However, safety culture research attracts comparatively more attention from other scientific domains, and the research domains rely on partially different knowledge bases. In particular, while measurement plays a role in both domains, the results suggest that safety climate research focuses comparatively more on the development and validation of questionnaires and surveys in particular organizational contexts, whereas safety culture research appears to relate these measurements to wider organizational features and management mechanisms. Finally, various directions for future research are identified based on the obtained results.

Effect of a restaurant hygienic grade certificate program on consumer choices

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The recent coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has brought to light issues regarding personal and environmental cleanliness. Individuals may have concerns about cleanliness at food service establishments when they consume food prepared at a restaurant. In Korea, a new restaurant hygienic certificate system was implemented in 2017. The effect of this new system has not been evaluated.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

This study investigated consumers' perceptions of these new certificates using the protection motivation theory (PMT). An online survey was conducted to collect data and then exploratory factor analysis, analysis of variance, and multiple regression tests were run.

RESULTS

The results of this study indicate that 3 different certificates had significant differences in threat (P < 0.001) and benefit (P < 0.001) perception. However, experience with a foodborne illness from a restaurant did not effect on the PMT variables. In addition, the 3-tier certificate did not motivate consumers to protect themselves against foodborne illnesses, while previous experiences of foodborne illness (P < 0.05), coping (P < 0.001), and benefits (P < 0.01) affected this protection motivation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that consumers were not influenced by different certificate levels regarding their motivation to protect themselves from foodborne illnesses. Therefore, an improved plan should be initiated to clarify the meaning of these certificates. The results of this study can help the application and development of a new system for future adaptations.

New Approach to Food Safety Training: A Review of a Six-Step Knowledge-Sharing Model

Significant resources, including both human and financial capital, have been dedicated to developing and delivering food handler training programs to meet government and organizational mandates. Even with the plethora of food safety-oriented training programs, there is scant empirical evidence documenting effectiveness, suggesting the need to rethink the design and delivery of food safety training for food handlers. One underlying assumption of most training programs is that food handlers engage in unsafe practices because of lack of knowledge. As a result, many training curricula are designed to improve knowledge, assuming behavior will change as knowledge increases. However, food handlers often return to the work environment and try to implement the new knowledge with minimal success. One explanation for this is that the training context and the implementation context often differ, making it difficult for the food handler to transfer what they learned into practice. Understanding the connection between knowledge, the organization, and its environment is critical to knowledge implementation. The focus of this review is to describe a six-step knowledge-sharing model. Here, knowledge sharing is broadly defined as the process of creating and then using knowledge to change a practice or behavior. Our proposed knowledge-sharing model includes six steps: generation, adaptation, dissemination, reception, adoption, and implementation. We have organized this model into two dyads: (i) transfer between researcher (i.e., knowledge generators) and educator and (ii) transfer between educator and food handler (i.e., knowledge implementers). To put into practice this proposed model for developing and delivering effective food safety training for food handlers, we have provided suggested actions that can be performed within each step of the knowledge-sharing process.

An Integrative Review of Hygiene Practice Studies in the Food Service Sector

ABSTRACT

This article reviews the recent literature on studies relevant to hygiene practices of food service workers. A total of 32 articles were chosen for evaluation from a systematic search of the published literature from 2014 to 2019. For the assessment of hygiene practices, hand washing as a measurement item and observation as a method were most frequently used. Factors influencing hygiene practices were categorized as internal and external variables. Internal variables included knowledge; psychological factors, such as attitude, risk perception, self-efficacy, and optimistic bias; and food handlers' sociodemographic characteristics, such as work experience and exposure to hygiene training. External variables included characteristics of food premises, such as the size of the operation and number of people served, and organizational factors, such as training. Regarding the recent training literature, attempts to bring in new methodologies and new technologies were found, such as multimedia case studies, cognitive word association, behavior-focused training, wearable technology, and simulation games. Among the theories utilized, knowledge, attitude, and practices were applied most frequently to explain hygiene practices. In particular, this review highlights the important fact that internal and external factors that affect hygiene practices should be considered to maintain good hygiene practices.

HIGHLIGHTS

Effectiveness of Food Handler Training and Education Interventions: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Improper food handling among those working in retail and food service settings is a frequent contributor to foodborne illness outbreaks. Food safety training and education interventions are important strategies to improve the behaviors and behavioral precursors (e.g., knowledge and attitudes) of food handlers in these settings. We conducted a comprehensive systematic review to identify, characterize, and synthesize global studies in this area to determine the overall effectiveness of these interventions. The review focused on experimental studies with an independent control group. Review methods included structured search strategy, relevance screening of identified abstracts, characterization of relevant articles, risk of bias assessment, data extraction, meta-analysis of intervention effectiveness for four outcome categories (attitudes, knowledge, behavior, and food premise inspection scores), and a quality of evidence assessment. We identified 18 relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and 29 nonrandomized trials. Among RCTs, 25 (64%) unique outcomes were rated as high risk of bias, primarily owing to concerns about outcome measurement methods, while 45 (98%) nonrandomized trial outcomes were rated as serious risk of bias, primarily because of concerns about confounding bias. High confidence was identified for the effect of training and education interventions to improve food handler knowledge outcomes in eight RCT studies (standardized mean difference = 0.92; 95% confidence interval: 0.03, 1.81; I² = 86%). For all other outcomes, no significant effect was identified. In contrast, nonrandomized trials identified a statistically significant positive intervention effect for all outcome types, but confidence in these findings was very low due to possible confounding and other biases. Results indicate that food safety training and education interventions are effective to improve food handler knowledge, but more evidence is needed on strategies to improve behavior change.

Psychosocial and organizational determinants of safe food handling at retail and food service establishments: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Various psychosocial and organizational factors have been investigated as determinants of food handlers' food safety behaviours. A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in this area was conducted to identify and synthesize the key behavioural determinants. Standard systematic review steps were followed: comprehensive search strategy; relevance screening; article characterization; risk of bias assessment; data extraction; and random-effects meta-analysis. Sixty-two relevant studies were identified, and knowledge was the most commonly investigated behavioural determinant (n = 51). Increased knowledge was consistently associated with safe food handing behaviours across both correlation (r = 0.30; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.12, 0.46; n = 24 studies; I² = 98%) and odds ratio (OR) measures (adjusted OR = 1.85; 95% CI: 1.27, 2.70; n = 3; I² = 0%). Seven other behavioural determinant categories were also consistently associated with various food safety behaviour outcomes. In contrast, no association was found between food handler experience and behaviour. The findings can inform the development of targeted training initiatives for food handlers.

Knowledge and risk perceptions of foodborne disease by consumers and food handlers at restaurants with different food safety profiles

Food handlers and consumers are responsible for avoiding foodborne diseases (FBD). Considering the meals consumed away from home, can the consumer identify the FBD risk level of the food that he/she consumes in restaurants? This study aimed to evaluate the knowledge, risk perception, and optimistic bias of food handlers and consumers of restaurants and the relationship of these variables with the FBD risk of these establishments. Sixty-four handlers and 265 consumers of 14 restaurants in the city of Limeira - São Paulo, Brazil participated in the study. A validated checklist was used to evaluate the food safety profile of restaurants with a score ranging from zero to 2565.95. A structured questionnaire was employed to assess knowledge of food safety and the risk perception of FBD. The food handlers indicated their own risk and their peers' risk of causing a FBD. Consumers evaluated their own risk and the risk of their peers of contracting a FBD after making their own meals, consuming meals at the studied restaurants and consuming meals in other food establishments. The answers were based on a structured scale with seven options. The difference between their risk perception levels (risk attributed to itself and to a peer) indicated the optimistic bias of FBD risk. The mean food safety risk score of the food service establishments was 105.51. The restaurants were classified into two groups, higher or lower FBD risk. The mean score of knowledge (percentage of correct answers) of food safety was 61.7% for handlers and 59% for consumers, showing a nonsignificant difference (p = .29). Both food handlers and consumers stated that they were less at risk for FBD than their peers (p < .001). A direct effect of consumers' optimistic bias on food service FBD risk was observed through multivariate analysis. Optimistic bias may lead consumers to choose restaurants with a higher FDB risk. A direct negative effect of food handlers' knowledge of food service FBD risk was observed. These results show that consumers may have incorporated a sense of affection and identity to a place, associating it with making their own meals at home. Therefore, the consumer may not differentiate restaurants with regard to food safety. This result reinforces the need for governments and health agencies to protect the health of the population.

Explaining the food safety behaviours of food handlers using theories of behaviour change: a systematic review

Theories of behaviour change can explain the factors affecting food handlers' use of food safety practices. A systematic review was conducted on this topic to identify which theories have been applied in this area and to determine which theories are the most consistent predictors of food handlers' behaviours. Standard systematic review procedures were followed: comprehensive search strategy; relevance screening of abstracts; article characterization; data extraction; risk-of-bias assessment; and descriptive analysis. Among 19 relevant studies, the most commonly investigated theories were the Theory of Planned Behaviour (n = 9 studies) and Health Belief Model (n = 5). All investigated theories were useful to explain food handlers' behavioural intentions and behaviours related to food safety across different settings, and could serve as useful frameworks for future research and practice. However, there was wide variability in the predictive ability of the theories and their specific constructs, indicating theories should be adapted to the local context of application.