Application of β-cyclodextrin in the production of low-cholesterol milk and dairy products

Cyclodextrins and their potential applications for delivering vitamins, iron, and iodine for improving micronutrient status

Cyclodextrins (CDs) have been investigated as potential biopolymeric carriers that can form inclusion complexes with numerous bioactive ingredients. The inclusion of micronutrients (e.g. vitamins or minerals) into cyclodextrins can enhance their solubility and provide oxidative or thermal stability. It also enables the formulation of products with extended shelf-life. The designed delivery systems with CDs and their inclusion complexes including electrospun nanofibers, emulsions, liposomes, and hydrogels, show potential in enhancing the solubility and oxidative stability of micronutrients while enabling their controlled and sustained release in applications including food packaging, fortified foods and dietary supplements. Nano or micrometer-sized delivery systems capable of controlling burst release and permeation, or moderating skin hydration have been reported, which can facilitate the formulation of several personal and skin care products for topical or transdermal delivery of micronutrients. This review highlights recent developments in the application of CDs for the delivery of micronutrients, i.e. vitamins, iron, and iodine, which play key roles in the human body, emphasizing their existing and potential applications in the food, pharmaceuticals, and cosmeceuticals industries.

Difference in the complexation of cholesterol with β-cyclodextrin derivatives: A combined theoretical and experimental study

This study aimed to compare differences in interactions between cholesterol and β- cyclodextrin and its derivatives for selecting a suitable β-cyclodextrin derivative to efficiently remove cholesterol from high-melting-point foods. First, the formation of cholesterol/β-cyclodextrin derivative complexes was investigated using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetric analysis. Secondly, the conformations of β-cyclodextrin derivatives were determined from experimental and calculated 1H NMR spectra, and the weak interactions between cholesterol and β-cyclodextrin derivatives were studied by computational approach. Cholesterol/hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin complex had the lowest complexation energy. Besides, two moderate hydrogen bonds were formed between cholesterol and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin and between cholesterol and sulfobutyl ether-β-cyclodextrin, while one weak hydrogen bond was formed between cholesterol and methyl-β-cyclodextrin. Finally, the efficiency of cholesterol removal by hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin was 5.47% higher than that by β-cyclodextrin at their optimal temperature. This work provided a theoretical basis for selecting a competent adsorbent to effectively remove cholesterol from high-melting-point foods.

Adsorption removal properties of β-cyclodextrin-modified pectin on cholesterol and sodium cholate

A novel adsorbent β-cyclodextrin-modified pectin was synthesized for removing cholesterol and bile salts from the gastric-intestinal passage. Different amounts of β-cyclodextrin were cross-linked to pectin by aldol condensation reaction via glutaraldehyde. The prepared β-cyclodextrin-modified pectins were successfully confirmed by characterization, showing a higher specific surface area and improved thermal stability with satisfactory cellular compatibility. The introduction of β-cyclodextrins dramatically improved the cholesterol adsorption capacity of pectin due to their hydrophobic cavities. Meanwhile, the modified pectins exhibited superior adsorption for sodium cholate than β-cyclodextrin or pectin itself, which was attributed to hydrophobic interactions. P10:1 displayed the strongest adsorption performance, with a maximum adsorption ability of 44.21 mg/g for cholesterol and 21.38 mg/g for sodium cholate. Furthermore, their adsorption favored the Langmuir isotherm model and pseudosecond-order kinetic model. These results indicate that modified pectin has potential as a nature-based adsorbent for removal of cholesterol and bile salts in the health food industry.

Stabilization effects of saccharides in protein formulations: A review of sucrose, trehalose, cyclodextrins and dextrans

Saccharides are a popular group of stabilizers in liquid, frozen and freeze dried protein formulations. The current work reviewed the stabilization mechanisms of three groups of saccharides: (i) Disaccharides, specifically sucrose and trehalose; (ii) cyclodextrins (CDs), a class of cyclic oligosaccharides; and (iii) dextrans, a class of polysaccharides. Compared to sucrose, trehalose exhibits a more pronounced preferential exclusion effect in liquid protein formulations, due to its stronger interaction with water molecules. However, trehalose obtains higher phase separation and crystallization propensity in frozen solutions, resulting in the loss of its stabilization function. In lyophilized formulations, sucrose has a higher crystallization propensity. Besides, its glass matrix is less homogeneous than that of trehalose, thus undermining its lyoprotectant function. Nevertheless, the hygroscopic nature of trehalose may result in high water absorption upon storage. Among all the CDs, the β form is believed to have stronger interactions with proteins than the α- and γ-CDs. However, the stabilization effect, brought about by CD-protein interactions, is case-by-case - in some examples, such interactions can promote protein destabilization. The stabilization effect of hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) has been extensively studied. Due to its amphiphilic nature, it can act as a surface-active agent in preventing interfacial stresses. Besides, it is a dual functional excipient in freeze dried formulations, acting as an amorphous bulking agent and lyoprotectant. Finally, dextrans, when combined with sucrose or trehalose, can be used to produce stable freeze dried protein formulations. A strong stabilization effect can be realized by low molecular weight dextrans. However, the terminal glucose in dextrans yields protein glycation, which warrants extra caution during formulation development.

Exploring the role of cyclodextrins as a cholesterol scavenger: a molecular dynamics investigation of conformational changes and thermodynamics

This study presents a comprehensive analysis of the cholesterol binding mechanism and conformational changes in cyclodextrin (CD) carriers, namely βCD, 2HPβCD, and MβCD. The results revealed that the binding of cholesterol to CDs was spontaneous and thermodynamically favorable, with van der Waals interactions playing a dominant role, while Coulombic interactions have a negligible contribution. The solubility of cholesterol/βCD and cholesterol/MβCD complexes was lower compared to cholesterol/2HPβCD complex due to stronger vdW and Coulombic repulsion between water and CDs. Hydrogen bonding was found to have a minor role in the binding process. The investigation of mechanisms and kinetics of binding demonstrated that cholesterol permeates into the CD cavities completely. Replicas consideration indicated that while the binding to 2HPβCD occurred perpendicularly and solely through positioning cholesterol's oxygen toward the primary hydroxyl rim (PHR), the mechanism of cholesterol binding to βCD and MβCD could take place with the orientation of oxygen towards both rims. Functionalization resulted in decreased cavity polarity, increased constriction tendency, and altered solubility and configuration of the carrier. Upon cholesterol binding, the CDs expanded, increasing the cavity volume in cholesterol-containing systems. The effects of cholesterol on the relative shape anisotropy (κ2) and asphericity parameter (b) in cyclodextrins were investigated. βCD exhibited a spherical structure regardless of cholesterol presence, while 2HPβCD and MβCD displayed more pronounced non-sphericity in the absence of cholesterol. Loading cholesterol transformed 2HPβCD and MβCD into more spherical shapes, with increased probabilities of higher κ2. MβCD showed a higher maximum peak of κ2 compared to 2HPβCD after cholesterol loading, while 2HPβCD maintained a significant maximum peak at 0.2 for b.

Polysaccharide-based biosorbents for cholesterol and bile salts in gastric-intestinal passage: Advances and future trends

Cholesterol is one of the hazard elements for many cardiovascular diseases, but many cholesterol-lowering drugs are expensive and unhealthy. Therefore, it is necessary to develop edible and safe biosorbents to reduce excess cholesterol and bile salts in the gastric-intestinal passage. Polysaccharide-based biosorbents offer a feasible strategy for decreasing them. This review summarized polysaccharide-based biosorbents that have been developed for adsorbing cholesterol and bile salts from the gastric-intestinal passage and analyzed common modification methods for these adsorbents. Finally, the adsorption models were also elucidated. Polysaccharides, including β-cyclodextrin, pectin, chitin/chitosan, dietary fiber extract, and cellulose, have been proposed for adsorbing cholesterol and bile salts in the gastric-intestinal passage as biosorbents. This is mainly due to the retention of pores, the capture of the viscosity network, and the help of hydrophobic interactions. In spite of this, the adsorption capacity of polysaccharides is still limited. Therefore, the modifications for them became the most popular areas in the recent studies of in vitro cholesterol adsorption. Chemical approaches namely grafting, (1) acetylation, (2) hydroxypropylation, (3) carboxymethylation, and (4) amination are considered to modify the polysaccharides for higher adsorption ability. Moreover, ultrasonic/microwave/pressure treatment and micron technology (microfluidization, micronization, and ball milling) are effective physical modification methods, while the biological approach mainly refers to enzymatic hydrolysis and microbial fermentation. The adsorption models are generally explained by two adsorption isotherms and two adsorption kinetics. In sum, it is reckoned that further food applications will follow soon.

Reduction of Beta Cyclodextrin by Curd Washing in Low-Cholesterol Manchego Cheese

Beta-cyclodextrin (β-CD) is a cyclic oligosaccharide consisting of seven glucose units. β-CD is increasingly used in food research to reduce cholesterol due to its affinity for non-polar molecules such as cholesterol and as a natural additive. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of curd washing in ewe's milk cheese on the reduction in cholesterol by β-CD from pasteurized ewe's milk Manchego cheese and the characteristics of its main components: milk, lipids, and flavor. An approximately 98.45% cholesterol reduction was observed in washed experimental cheeses that were treated by using β-CD. The remaining residual β-CD from the effect of curd washing was 0.15% in mature cheese, of the initial 1% β-CD treatment of the milk. The chemical properties (fat, moisture, and protein) did not change as a result of the curd washing with or without β-CD. The curd washing with or without β-CD on the levels of the various lipid fraction (fatty acids, triglycerides, and phospholipids) were comparable in treated and untreated cheeses. The effects of curd washing and the β-CD treatment did not significantly affect flavor components or short chain free fatty acids. The β-CD molecules were edible and nontoxic; as a result, they could be used safely in cholesterol removal processing in cheese manufacturing, improving the reduction in residual β-CD by curd washing by 85%. Therefore, the present study suggests that curd washing combined with β-CD is an effective process for cholesterol removal in Manchego cheese, preserving its desirable properties.

Guest-host Relationship of Cyclodextrin and its Pharmacological Benefits

Many methods, including solid dispersion, micellization, and inclusion complexes, have been employed to increase the solubility of potent drugs. Beta-cyclodextrin (βCD) is a cyclic oligosaccharide consisting of seven glucopyranoside molecules, and is a widely used polymer for formulating soluble inclusion complexes of hydrophobic drugs. The enzymatic activity of Glycosyltransferase or α-amylase converts starch or its derivatives into a mixture of cyclodextrins. The βCD units are characterized by α -(1-4) glucopyranose bonds. Cyclodextrins possess certain properties that make them very distinctive because of their toroidal or truncated cage-like supramolecular configurations with multiple hydroxyl groups at each end. This allowed them to encapsulate hydrophobic compounds by forming inclusion complexes without losing their solubility in water. Chemical modifications and newer derivatives, such as methylated βCD, more soluble hydroxyl propyl methyl βCD, and sodium salts of sulfobutylether-βCD, known as dexolve® or captisol®, have envisaged the use of CDs in various pharmaceutical, medical, and cosmetic industries. The successful inclusion of drug complexes has demonstrated improved solubility, bioavailability, drug resistance reduction, targeting, and penetration across skin and brain tissues. This review encompasses the current applications of β-CDs in improving the disease outcomes of antimicrobials and antifungals as well as anticancer and anti-tubercular drugs.

Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complexes and Their Application in Food Safety Analysis: Recent Developments and Future Prospects

Food safety issues are a major threat to public health and have attracted much attention. Therefore, exploring accurate, efficient, sensitive, and economical detection methods is necessary to ensure consumers' health. In this regard, cyclodextrins (CDs) are promising candidates because they are nontoxic and noncaloric. The main body of CDs is a ring structure with hydrophobic cavity and hydrophilic exterior wall. Due to the above characteristics, CDs can encapsulate small guest molecules into their cavities, enhance their stability, avoid agglomeration and oxidation, and, at the same time, interact through hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions. Additionally, they can selectively capture the target molecules to be detected and improve the sensitivity of food detection. This review highlights recent advances in CD inclusion technology in food safety analysis, covering various applications from small molecule and heavy metal sensing to amino acid and microbial sensing. Finally, challenges and prospects for CDs and their derivatives are presented. The current review can provide a reference and guidance for current research on CDs in the food industry and may inspire breakthroughs in this field.

Decrease in Aflatoxin M1 Concentration in Milk during Cholesterol Removal by Application of β-Cyclodextrin

Approximately one-third of humankind is chronically exposed to the carcinogenic aflatoxin M1 contained in milk. As β-cyclodextrin is frequently used in the food industry, its effect on aflatoxin M1 concentration was investigated during cholesterol removal from milk due to the similarity among the physicochemical properties of aflatoxin M1 and cholesterol. Moreover, the elimination of cholesterol using β-cyclodextrin has been successfully applied in many studies without any substantial effect on the quality of the treated milk. Therefore, milk samples were spiked with aflatoxin M1 within the range from 0.20 to 2.00 µg/kg, and cholesterol removal was carried out by 2.0% (w/w) β-cyclodextrin addition, as this concentration is enough for the sufficient removal of cholesterol. It was found that the mean cholesterol concentration decreased by 92.3%, while the aflatoxin M1 concentration decreased to 0.53 ± 0.04 µg/kg, i.e., by 39.1% after treatment (n = 2). This mitigation procedure itself is easy and inexpensive and thus is fully applicable with a high potential for complete decontamination of aflatoxin M1 milk. This method will therefore considerably improve the food safety issues associated with aflatoxin M1 presence in milk and dairy products.

β-Cyclodextrin as the Key Issue in Production of Acceptable Low-Cholesterol Dairy Products

The application of cyclodextrins in food technology is extensive due to their unique ability to form complexes with many bioactive substances. Consumption of dairy products is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) due to its high content of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol, so the production of low-cholesterol content products would be one of the critical steps in CVD prevention with regards to lowered total daily cholesterol intake. To maintain consumer acceptance, organoleptic profiles of such products should be, in the optimal case, the same with comparison to original ones. So, this study deals with the development of set low cholesterol foods (milk, cream, butter, soft cheese, cottage cheese) by β-cyclodextrin treatment and the characterization of their organoleptic profiles such as color and textural characteristics. During the experiments, high effectivity of cholesterol removal was reached as follows: milk–97.3%, cream–95.6%, butter–95.6%, cottage cheese–97.9%, soft cheese–97.7%, while color differences varied from 0.25 to 1.13 and textural characteristics were not influenced by cholesterol removal as well. So, it can be concluded that the proposed procedure is enabled to be substantial for the production of a new assortment of low-cholesterol dairy products with considerable health benefits toward the incidence of CVD.