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Mudaliar SB, Bharath Prasad AS. A biomedical perspective of pyocyanin from Pseudomonas aeruginosa: its applications and challenges. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 40:90. [PMID: 38341389 PMCID: PMC10858844 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-024-03889-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024]
Abstract
Pyocyanin is a bioactive pigment produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. It is an important virulence factor that plays a critical role in P. aeruginosa infections as a redox-active secondary metabolite and a quorum sensing (QS) signaling molecule. Pyocyanin production from chorismic acid requires the involvement of two homologous operons, phz1 and phz2, which are activated by QS regulatory proteins. Pyocyanin inhibits the proliferation of bacterial, fungal, and mammalian cells by inducing oxidative stress due to which it acts as a potent antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer agent. Its potential role as a neuroprotectant needs further exploration. However, pyocyanin exacerbates the damaging effects of nosocomial infections caused by P. aeruginosa in immunocompromised individuals. Further, cystic fibrosis (CF) patients are highly susceptible to persistent P. aeruginosa infections in the respiratory system. The bacterial cells form colonies and three interconnected QS networks-pqs, las, and rhl-get activated, thus stimulating the cells to produce pyocyanin which exacerbates pulmonary complications. As an opportunistic pathogen, P. aeruginosa produces pyocyanin to impede the recovery of injuries like burn wounds through its anti-proliferative activity. Moreover, pyocyanin plays a vital role in compounding P. aeruginosa infections by promoting biofilm formation. This review begins with a brief description of the characteristics of pyocyanin, its activity, and the different aspects of its production including its biosynthesis, the role of QS, and the effect of environmental factors. It then goes on to explore the potential applications of pyocyanin as a biotherapeutic molecule while also highlighting the biomedical challenges and limitations that it presents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samriti Balaji Mudaliar
- Department of Public Health & Genomics, Manipal School of Life Sciences (MSLS), Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India
| | - Alevoor Srinivas Bharath Prasad
- Department of Public Health & Genomics, Manipal School of Life Sciences (MSLS), Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE), Manipal, Karnataka, 576104, India.
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2
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Kitamura N, Yamamoto Y, Yamamoto N, Murase T. Rosmarinic acid ameliorates HCl-induced cystitis in rats. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0288813. [PMID: 37463180 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Shiso (Perilla frutescens var crispa f. purprea) is a traditional medicinal herb that exerts anti-inflammatory effects and alleviates lower urinary tract symptoms. In this study, we examined the effects of rosmarinic acid, a major polyphenol in shiso, on urinary function and the bladder in a rat hydrochloric acid-induced cystitis model. Sprague-Dawley rats were administered intravesically with hydrochloric acid or saline solution (control) to induce cystitis. Afterwards, the rats were administered orally with distilled water or rosmarinic acid for three days and then the intravesical pressure was measured, a stretch stimulation test was performed using the harvested bladder, and histological and biochemical analyses were performed. In addition, we investigated the effects of rosmarinic acid on the expression of inflammation-related molecules in normal human bladder epithelial cells. Rosmarinic acid ameliorated hydrochloric acid-induced shortening of micturition interval by 49%. In hydrochloric acid-treated bladders, significantly more prostaglandin E2 was released after stretching; however, rosmarinic acid suppressed its release to control levels. Rosmarinic acid also reduced hydrochloric acid-induced epithelial thickening and the levels of inflammatory molecules in the bladder. Furthermore, rosmarinic acid suppressed interleukin 1β-induced increases in Cox2 and Il6 expression in bladder epithelial cells. These findings indicate that rosmarinic acid can ameliorate hydrochloric acid-induced cystitis in rats and that these effects are due, at least in part, to its anti-inflammatory effects on the bladder and inhibition of stretch-induced prostaglandin E2 release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoya Kitamura
- Biological Science Research, Kao Corporation, Tochigi, Japan
| | | | - Naoki Yamamoto
- Biological Science Research, Kao Corporation, Tochigi, Japan
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3
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Xin H, Yu N, Yang Q, Zou X, An Z, Zhou G. Antioxidative polyphenols attenuate pyocyanin-induced ROS production in neuronal HT22 cell lines. RSC Adv 2023; 13:19477-19484. [PMID: 37388142 PMCID: PMC10301880 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra02943c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pyocyanin, a secreted virulence factor, plays an essential role during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Infection of the central nervous system by this bacterium results in high mortality, but the studies on its mechanism are still rather limited. In this study, we first evaluate the neuronal damage caused by pyocyanin exposure in neuronal HT22 cells. Pyocyanin leads to mitochondrial syndrome and antioxidant defense disruption, therefore increasing intercellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Several typical superior antioxidant polyphenols effectively protect against pyocyanin-induced neuronal cell damage. These findings suggest the neuronal protective activity more or less relies on the structure, rather than the residues. Pre-incubation of catechin activates the essential pathway, indicating inverse correlation of ERK and AMPK phosphorylation participates in this process. These data outline a novel strategy to eliminate intracellular generated ROS. The investigated candidates could be potentially used as therapeutic agents against various ROS-related neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haolin Xin
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Huanhu Hospital Tianjin China
| | - Ning Yu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Huanhu Hospital Tianjin China
| | - Qian Yang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Huanhu Hospital Tianjin China
| | - Xuan Zou
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Huanhu Hospital Tianjin China
| | - Zhongping An
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Huanhu Hospital Tianjin China
| | - Guanen Zhou
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Cerebral Vascular and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Department of Neurology, Huanhu Hospital Tianjin China
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The two faces of pyocyanin - why and how to steer its production? World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2023; 39:103. [PMID: 36864230 PMCID: PMC9981528 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-023-03548-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
The ambiguous nature of pyocyanin was noted quite early after its discovery. This substance is a recognized Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factor that causes problems in cystic fibrosis, wound healing, and microbiologically induced corrosion. However, it can also be a potent chemical with potential use in a wide variety of technologies and applications, e.g. green energy production in microbial fuel cells, biocontrol in agriculture, therapy in medicine, or environmental protection. In this mini-review, we shortly describe the properties of pyocyanin, its role in the physiology of Pseudomonas and show the ever-growing interest in it. We also summarize the possible ways of modulating pyocyanin production. We underline different approaches of the researchers that aim either at lowering or increasing pyocyanin production by using different culturing methods, chemical additives, physical factors (e.g. electromagnetic field), or genetic engineering techniques. The review aims to present the ambiguous character of pyocyanin, underline its potential, and signalize the possible further research directions.
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Martin A, Woolbright BL, Umar S, Ingersoll MA, Taylor JA. Bladder cancer, inflammageing and microbiomes. Nat Rev Urol 2022; 19:495-509. [PMID: 35798831 DOI: 10.1038/s41585-022-00611-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Ageing is correlated with elevated bladder cancer incidence, morbidity and mortality. Advanced age is also associated with elevated markers of chronic inflammation and perturbations in gut and urinary tract microbiota. One reason for the increased incidence and mortality of bladder cancer in the elderly might be that age-associated changes in multiple microbiomes induce systemic metabolic changes that contribute to immune dysregulation with potentially tumorigenic effects. The gut and urinary microbiomes could be dysregulated in bladder cancer, although the effect of these changes is poorly understood. Each of these domains - the immune system, gut microbiome and urinary microbiome - might also influence the response of patients with bladder cancer to treatment. Improved understanding of age-related alterations to the immune system and gut and urinary microbiomes could provide possible insight into the risk of bladder cancer development and progression in the elderly. In patients with bladder cancer, improved understanding of microbiota might also provide potential targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin Martin
- Department of Urology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | | | - Shahid Umar
- Department of Surgery, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Molly A Ingersoll
- Université Paris Cité, Institut Cochin, INSERM U1016, Paris, France.,Mucosal Inflammation and Immunity group, Department of Immunology, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - John A Taylor
- Department of Urology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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Manoharan A, Ognenovska S, Paino D, Whiteley G, Glasbey T, Kriel FH, Farrell J, Moore KH, Manos J, Das T. N-Acetylcysteine Protects Bladder Epithelial Cells from Bacterial Invasion and Displays Antibiofilm Activity against Urinary Tract Bacterial Pathogens. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:900. [PMID: 34438950 PMCID: PMC8388742 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10080900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Urinary tract infections (UTIs) affect more than 150 million individuals annually. A strong correlation exists between bladder epithelia invasion by uropathogenic bacteria and patients with recurrent UTIs. Intracellular bacteria often recolonise epithelial cells post-antibiotic treatment. We investigated whether N-acetylcysteine (NAC) could prevent uropathogenic E. coli and E. faecalis bladder cell invasion, in addition to its effect on uropathogens when used alone or in combination with ciprofloxacin. Methods: An invasion assay was performed in which bacteria were added to bladder epithelial cells (BECs) in presence of NAC and invasion was allowed to occur. Cells were washed with gentamicin, lysed, and plated for enumeration of the intracellular bacterial load. Cytotoxicity was evaluated by exposing BECs to various concentrations of NAC and quantifying the metabolic activity using resazurin at different exposure times. The effect of NAC on the preformed biofilms was also investigated by treating 48 h biofilms for 24 h and enumerating colony counts. Bacteria were stained with propidium iodide (PI) to measure membrane damage. Results: NAC completely inhibited BEC invasion by multiple E. coli and E. faecalis clinical strains in a dose-dependent manner (p < 0.01). This was also evident when bacterial invasion was visualised using GFP-tagged E. coli. NAC displayed no cytotoxicity against BECs despite its intrinsic acidity (pH ~2.6), with >90% cellular viability 48 h post-exposure. NAC also prevented biofilm formation by E. coli and E. faecalis and significantly reduced bacterial loads in 48 h biofilms when combined with ciprofloxacin. NAC visibly damaged E. coli and E. faecalis bacterial membranes, with a threefold increase in propidium iodide-stained cells following treatment (p < 0.05). Conclusions: NAC is a non-toxic, antibiofilm agent in vitro and can prevent cell invasion and IBC formation by uropathogens, thus providing a potentially novel and efficacious treatment for UTIs. When combined with an antibiotic, it may disrupt bacterial biofilms and eliminate residual bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arthika Manoharan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (A.M.); (D.P.); (J.F.); (J.M.)
| | - Samantha Ognenovska
- Department of Urogynaecology, St George Hospital, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; (S.O.); (K.H.M.)
| | - Denis Paino
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (A.M.); (D.P.); (J.F.); (J.M.)
| | - Greg Whiteley
- Whiteley Corporation, 19–23 Laverick Avenue, Tomago, NSW 2319, Australia; (G.W.); (T.G.); (F.H.K.)
| | - Trevor Glasbey
- Whiteley Corporation, 19–23 Laverick Avenue, Tomago, NSW 2319, Australia; (G.W.); (T.G.); (F.H.K.)
| | - Frederik H. Kriel
- Whiteley Corporation, 19–23 Laverick Avenue, Tomago, NSW 2319, Australia; (G.W.); (T.G.); (F.H.K.)
| | - Jessica Farrell
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (A.M.); (D.P.); (J.F.); (J.M.)
- Whiteley Corporation, 19–23 Laverick Avenue, Tomago, NSW 2319, Australia; (G.W.); (T.G.); (F.H.K.)
| | - Kate H. Moore
- Department of Urogynaecology, St George Hospital, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; (S.O.); (K.H.M.)
| | - Jim Manos
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (A.M.); (D.P.); (J.F.); (J.M.)
| | - Theerthankar Das
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, School of Medical Sciences, Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia; (A.M.); (D.P.); (J.F.); (J.M.)
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Peng L, Li BY, Wang W, Gao XS, Zeng X, Luo DY. Identification of key genes in human urothelial cells corresponding to interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome in a lipopolysaccharide-induced cystitis model. Neurourol Urodyn 2021; 40:1720-1729. [PMID: 34245600 DOI: 10.1002/nau.24743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The cellular functions of bladder urothelial cells in interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) have not been well revealed and understood. Thus, the study aims to identify key genes and significant pathways in urothelium corresponding to IC/BPS in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cystitis model and provide novel clues related to diagnosis and treatment of IC/BPS. METHODS Human urothelial cells (HUCs) were incubated with LPS (50 μg/ml for 24 h). Microarray was applied to analyze the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between HUCs under LPS treatment and the control group. DEGs in the two groups were identified and then used for enrichment analysis. Subsequently, protein-protein interaction (PPI) network based on DEGs was constructed. Lastly, the top five key genes were identified through the Cytoscape (version 3.7.2) using the "Clustering Coefficient" algorithm. RESULTS One hundred and seventy-one DEGs (96 upregulated genes and 75 downregulated genes) were identified between the LPS treatment and control group. The established PPI network was composed of 169 nodes and 678 edges. Moreover, C19orf33, TRIM31, MUC21, ELF3, and IFI27 were identified as hub genes in the PPI network. Subsequently, a statistically increased expression level of TRIM31 and ELF3 was validated by real-time quantitative-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry in bladder tissues from 20 patients with IC/BPS. CONCLUSIONS TRIM31 and ELF3 may be the two hub genes in urothelium corresponding to IC/BPS. More studies are warranted to further validate the findings. The identified marker genes may be useful targets for further studies to develop diagnostic tools and more effective therapies for a broader group of women with IC/PBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liao Peng
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Bo-Ya Li
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiao-Shuai Gao
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - Xiao Zeng
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
| | - De-Yi Luo
- Department of Urology, Institute of Urology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, China
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Murray BO, Flores C, Williams C, Flusberg DA, Marr EE, Kwiatkowska KM, Charest JL, Isenberg BC, Rohn JL. Recurrent Urinary Tract Infection: A Mystery in Search of Better Model Systems. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:691210. [PMID: 34123879 PMCID: PMC8188986 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.691210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are among the most common infectious diseases worldwide but are significantly understudied. Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) accounts for a significant proportion of UTI, but a large number of other species can infect the urinary tract, each of which will have unique host-pathogen interactions with the bladder environment. Given the substantial economic burden of UTI and its increasing antibiotic resistance, there is an urgent need to better understand UTI pathophysiology - especially its tendency to relapse and recur. Most models developed to date use murine infection; few human-relevant models exist. Of these, the majority of in vitro UTI models have utilized cells in static culture, but UTI needs to be studied in the context of the unique aspects of the bladder's biophysical environment (e.g., tissue architecture, urine, fluid flow, and stretch). In this review, we summarize the complexities of recurrent UTI, critically assess current infection models and discuss potential improvements. More advanced human cell-based in vitro models have the potential to enable a better understanding of the etiology of UTI disease and to provide a complementary platform alongside animals for drug screening and the search for better treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin O. Murray
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Flores
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Corin Williams
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Deborah A. Flusberg
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Elizabeth E. Marr
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Karolina M. Kwiatkowska
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph L. Charest
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Brett C. Isenberg
- Department of Bioengineering, Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc., Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Rohn
- Centre for Urological Biology, Department of Renal Medicine, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Elbargisy RM. Optimization of nutritional and environmental conditions for pyocyanin production by urine isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Saudi J Biol Sci 2020; 28:993-1000. [PMID: 33424392 PMCID: PMC7783791 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2020] [Revised: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is a highly pathogenic bacteria involved in numerous diseases among which, are urinary tract infections (UTIs). The pyocyanin secreted as a virulence factor by this bacterium has many beneficial applications but its high cost remains an obstacle for its widespread use. In this study, a total of fifty urine isolates were identified as P. aeruginosa. All strains produced pyocyanin pigment with a range of 1.3-31 µg/ml. The highest producer clinical strain P21 and the standard strain PA14 were used in optimization of pyocyanin production. Among tested media, king's A fluid medium resulted in the highest yield of pyocyanin pigment followed by nutrient broth. Growth at 37 °C was superior in pyocyanin production than growth at 30 °C. Both shaking and longer incubation periods (3-4 days) improved pyocyanin production. The pyocyanin yield was indifferent upon growth of P21 at both pH 7 and pH 8. In conclusion, the optimum conditions for pyocyanin production are to use King's A fluid medium of pH 7 and incubate the inoculated medium at 37 °C with shaking at 200 rpm for a period of three to four days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rehab Mohammed Elbargisy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakaka, Al-Jouf, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
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Dalghi MG, Montalbetti N, Carattino MD, Apodaca G. The Urothelium: Life in a Liquid Environment. Physiol Rev 2020; 100:1621-1705. [PMID: 32191559 PMCID: PMC7717127 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00041.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Revised: 03/02/2020] [Accepted: 03/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The urothelium, which lines the renal pelvis, ureters, urinary bladder, and proximal urethra, forms a high-resistance but adaptable barrier that surveils its mechanochemical environment and communicates changes to underlying tissues including afferent nerve fibers and the smooth muscle. The goal of this review is to summarize new insights into urothelial biology and function that have occurred in the past decade. After familiarizing the reader with key aspects of urothelial histology, we describe new insights into urothelial development and regeneration. This is followed by an extended discussion of urothelial barrier function, including information about the roles of the glycocalyx, ion and water transport, tight junctions, and the cellular and tissue shape changes and other adaptations that accompany expansion and contraction of the lower urinary tract. We also explore evidence that the urothelium can alter the water and solute composition of urine during normal physiology and in response to overdistension. We complete the review by providing an overview of our current knowledge about the urothelial environment, discussing the sensor and transducer functions of the urothelium, exploring the role of circadian rhythms in urothelial gene expression, and describing novel research tools that are likely to further advance our understanding of urothelial biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marianela G Dalghi
- Department of Medicine, Renal-Electrolyte Division, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Nicolas Montalbetti
- Department of Medicine, Renal-Electrolyte Division, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Marcelo D Carattino
- Department of Medicine, Renal-Electrolyte Division, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Gerard Apodaca
- Department of Medicine, Renal-Electrolyte Division, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
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11
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Olive Leaf Extract Modulates Quorum Sensing Genes and Biofilm Formation in Multi-Drug Resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antibiotics (Basel) 2020; 9:antibiotics9090526. [PMID: 32824901 PMCID: PMC7560099 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics9090526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Biofilm acts as a complex barrier against antibiotics. In this study, we investigated the inhibitory activities of Olea europaea (olive) leaves Camellia sinensis (green tea), Styrax benzoin, Ocimum basilicum, Humulus lupulus, Ruta graveolens, and Propolis extracts on the biofilm formation, pyocyanin production, and twitching motility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates. Moreover, we investigated the effect of olive leaf extract on the transcription of some biofilm related genes. A total of 204 isolates of Pseudomonas were collected from different Egyptian hospitals. A susceptibility test, carried out using the disc diffusion method, revealed that 49% of the isolates were multidrug-resistant. More than 90% of the isolates were biofilm-forming, of which 26% were strong biofilm producers. At subinhibitory concentrations, green tea and olive leaf extracts had the highest biofilm inhibitory effects with 84.8% and 82.2%, respectively. The expression levels of lasI, lasR, rhlI, and rhlR treated with these extracts were significantly reduced (p < 0.05) by around 97-99% compared to untreated isolates. This study suggests the ability of olive leaf extract to reduce the biofilm formation and virulence factor production of P. aeruginosa through the down regulation of quorum sensing (QS) genes. This may help in reducing our dependence on antibiotics and to handle biofilm-related infections of opportunistic pathogens more efficiently.
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12
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Pan Y, Zhao X, Kim SH, Kang SA, Kim YG, Park KY. Anti-inflammatory effects of Beopje curly dock (Rumex crispus L.) in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 cells and its active compounds. J Food Biochem 2020; 44:e13291. [PMID: 32458452 DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.13291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is a defense response of the body to stimuli. Curly dock (CD) is an herbal food with anti-inflammatory effects. Beopje is an herbal food processing method that reduces toxicity and enhances beneficial effects. This study investigated the effects of CD and Beopje curly dock (CD-B) extracts on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory damage in RAW 264.7 cells. Cell survival rate and nitrite concentration were determined using the MTT assay and Griess method, respectively. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to detect the inflammatory cytokine levels. The mRNA and protein expression levels of inflammatory associated genes were detected by qPCR and Western blot, respectively. CD and CD-B extracts compositions were assessed by UPLC-Q-TOF MS analysis. Our results indicate that CD-B has a more significant inhibitory effect on the LPS-induced inflammatory response in RAW 264.7 cells than CD, suggesting that the Beopje process potentially enhances the anti-inflammatory effect of CD. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Long-term inflammation can cause a variety of chronic diseases. Therefore, it is necessary to suppress the occurrence of body inflammation in time. This study preliminarily clarified the mechanism of herbal foods to alleviate inflammation by regulating the immune response, and further confirms that applying the Beopje process enhances the anti-inflammatory effect. This research can serve as a significant reference for future research, prevention and treatment of inflammation-related diseases, and the development of functional foods with anti-inflammatory activity. It also provides a theoretical basis for the further reasonable application of Beopje processing method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanni Pan
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Cha University, Seongnam, South Korea.,Chongqing Collaborative Innovation Center for Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Laboratory for Research and Development of Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Chongqing Collaborative Innovation Center for Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Laboratory for Research and Development of Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China
| | - Seung-Hee Kim
- Department of Conversing Technology, Graduate School of Venture, Hoseo University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Soon-Ah Kang
- Department of Conversing Technology, Graduate School of Venture, Hoseo University, Seoul, South Korea
| | | | - Kun-Young Park
- Department of Food Science and Biotechnology, Cha University, Seongnam, South Korea.,Chongqing Collaborative Innovation Center for Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Research Center of Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China.,Chongqing Engineering Laboratory for Research and Development of Functional Food, Chongqing University of Education, Chongqing, China
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13
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Larian N, Ensor M, Thatcher SE, English V, Morris AJ, Stromberg A, Cassis LA. Pseudomonas aeruginosa-derived pyocyanin reduces adipocyte differentiation, body weight, and fat mass as mechanisms contributing to septic cachexia. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 130:219-230. [PMID: 31078726 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a leading cause of sepsis, produces pyocyanin, a blue-pigmented virulence factor. Sepsis is associated with cachexia, but mechanisms are unknown and conventional nutrition approaches are not effective treatments. Pyocyanin has affinity for the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which is expressed on adipocytes and regulates adipocyte differentiation. The purpose of this study was to define in vitro and in vivo effects of pyocyanin on adipocyte differentiation and body weight regulation as relates to septic cachexia. In 3T3-L1 preadipocytes, pyocyanin activated AhR and its downstream marker CYP1a1, and reduced differentiation. Administration of pyocyanin to male C57BL/6J mice acutely reduced body temperature with altered locomotion, but caused sustained weight loss. Chronic pyocyanin administration to male and female C57BL/6J mice resulted in sustained reductions in body weight and fat mass, with adipose-specific AhR activation. Pyocyanin-treated male mice had decreased energy expenditure and physical activity, and increased adipose explant lipolysis. In females, pyocyanin caused robust reductions in body weight, adipose-specific AhR activation, and increased expression of inflammatory cytokines in differentiated adipocytes. These results demonstrate that pyocyanin reduces adipocyte differentiation and decreases body weight and fat mass in male and female mice, suggesting that pyocyanin may play a role in septic cachexia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nika Larian
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Mark Ensor
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Sean E Thatcher
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Victoria English
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Andrew J Morris
- Department of Internal Medicine,University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Arnold Stromberg
- Department of Statistics, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - Lisa A Cassis
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.
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14
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Marreiro de Sales-Neto J, Lima ÉA, Cavalcante-Silva LHA, Vasconcelos U, Rodrigues-Mascarenhas S. Anti-inflammatory potential of pyocyanin in LPS-stimulated murine macrophages. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2019; 41:102-108. [PMID: 30623710 DOI: 10.1080/08923973.2018.1555845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Context: Pyocyanin is a typical Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factor, a common Gram-negative rod responsible for a wide range of severe nosocomial infections. There is evidence indicating that pyocyanin has multiple biological activities, but little is known about anti-inflammatory properties. Objective: This study investigated pyocyanin effect on nitric oxide and cytokine production in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated murine peritoneal macrophages. Materials and methods: Macrophages were incubated in the presence and absence of pyocyanin (1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 µM) with and without LPS (1 µg/mL). Nitric oxide production was determined by Griess reagent and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β production was assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, pyocyanin effects on zymosan A-induced peritonitis in mice were evaluated. Results: Pyocyanin (5 and 10 µM) decreased nitric oxide, TNF-α, and IL-1β production independent of macrophage death. On the other hand, in vivo, pyocyanin (5 mg/kg) was not able to affect leukocyte migration into the site of inflammation. Discussion and conclusion: Thus, our findings suggest that pyocyanin exerts anti-inflammatory effects on murine peritoneal macrophages, downregulating nitric oxide, TNF-α, and IL-1β levels, which seems to be independent of cell migration. These effects may represent a mechanism of immune evasion; nevertheless more detailed studies should be performed to confirm this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - É A Lima
- a Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular , Universidade Federal da Paraíba , João Pessoa , Brazil
| | - L H A Cavalcante-Silva
- a Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular , Universidade Federal da Paraíba , João Pessoa , Brazil
| | - U Vasconcelos
- b Departamento de Biotecnologia , Universidade Federal da Paraíba , João Pessoa , Brazil
| | - S Rodrigues-Mascarenhas
- a Departamento de Biologia Celular e Molecular , Universidade Federal da Paraíba , João Pessoa , Brazil
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15
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Grundy L, Caldwell A, Brierley SM. Mechanisms Underlying Overactive Bladder and Interstitial Cystitis/Painful Bladder Syndrome. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:931. [PMID: 30618560 PMCID: PMC6299241 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The bladder is innervated by extrinsic afferents that project into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord, providing sensory input to the micturition centers within the central nervous system. Under normal conditions, the continuous activation of these neurons during bladder distension goes mostly unnoticed. However, for patients with chronic urological disorders such as overactive bladder syndrome (OAB) and interstitial cystitis/painful bladder syndrome (IC/PBS), exaggerated bladder sensation and altered bladder function are common debilitating symptoms. Whilst considered to be separate pathological entities, there is now significant clinical and pre-clinical evidence that both OAB and IC/PBS are related to structural, synaptic, or intrinsic changes in the complex signaling pathways that mediate bladder sensation. This review discusses how urothelial dysfunction, bladder permeability, inflammation, and cross-organ sensitisation between visceral organs can regulate this neuroplasticity. Furthermore, we discuss how the emotional affective component of pain processing, involving dysregulation of the HPA axis and maladaptation to stress, anxiety and depression, can exacerbate aberrant bladder sensation and urological dysfunction. This review reveals the complex nature of urological disorders, highlighting numerous interconnected mechanisms in their pathogenesis. To find appropriate therapeutic treatments for these disorders, it is first essential to understand the mechanisms responsible, incorporating research from every level of the sensory pathway, from bladder to brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luke Grundy
- Visceral Pain Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Centre for Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Diseases, Discipline of Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Ashlee Caldwell
- Visceral Pain Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Centre for Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Diseases, Discipline of Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Stuart M. Brierley
- Visceral Pain Research Group, Centre for Neuroscience, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia
- Centre for Nutrition and Gastrointestinal Diseases, Discipline of Medicine, South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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16
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Maslennikova IL, Kuznetsova MV, Nekrasova IV, Shirshev SV. Effect of bacterial components of mixed culture supernatants of planktonic and biofilm Pseudomonas aeruginosa with commensal Escherichia coli on the neutrophil response in vitro. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:4101235. [PMID: 28961860 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) responsible for acute and chronic infections often forms a well-organized bacterial population with different microbial species including commensal strains of Escherichia coli. Bacterial extracellular components of mixed culture can modulate the influence of bacteria on the neutrophil functions. The objective of this study was to compare the effect of pyocyanin, pyoverdine, LPS, exopolysaccharide of single species and mixed culture supernatants of PA strains and E. coli K12 on microbicidal, secretory activity of human neutrophils in vitro. Bacterial components of E. coli K12 in mixed supernatants with 'biofilm' PA strains (PA ATCC, PA BALG) enhanced short-term microbicidal mechanisms and inhibited neutrophil secretion delayed in time. The influence of 'planktonic' PA (PA 9-3) exometabolites in mixed culture is almost mimicked by E. coli K12 effect on functional neutrophil changes. This investigation may help to understand some of the mechanisms of neutrophil response to mixed infections of different PA with other bacteria species.
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17
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Podmolíková L, Mukanyangezi M, Nieto-Marín P, Giglio D. Cholinergic regulation of proliferation of the urothelium in response to E. coli lipopolysaccharide exposition. Int Immunopharmacol 2018; 56:222-229. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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18
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Arora D, Hall S, Anoopkumar-Dukie S, Morrison R, McFarland A, Perkins AV, Davey AK, Grant GD. Pyocyanin induces systemic oxidative stress, inflammation and behavioral changes in vivo. Toxicol Mech Methods 2018; 28:410-414. [DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2018.1429038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Devinder Arora
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Susan Hall
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Shailendra Anoopkumar-Dukie
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Rachel Morrison
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Amelia McFarland
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Anthony V. Perkins
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
| | - Andrew K. Davey
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
| | - Gary D. Grant
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Quality Use of Medicines Network, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
- Menzies Institute, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
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19
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Newman JW, Floyd RV, Fothergill JL. The contribution of Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factors and host factors in the establishment of urinary tract infections. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2017; 364:3866593. [DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnx124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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20
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Fourie R, Ells R, Kemp G, Sebolai OM, Albertyn J, Pohl CH. Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces aspirin insensitive eicosanoids and contributes to the eicosanoid profile of polymicrobial biofilms with Candida albicans. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 2017; 117:36-46. [PMID: 28237086 DOI: 10.1016/j.plefa.2017.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Revised: 12/16/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of clinically relevant microorganisms is the focus of various studies, e.g. the interaction between the pathogenic yeast, Candida albicans, and the bacterium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa. During infection both release arachidonic acid, which they can transform into eicosanoids. This study evaluated the production of prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin F2α and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid by biofilms of P. aeruginosa and C. albicans. The influence of co-incubation, acetylsalicylic acid and nordihydroguaiaretic acid on biofilm formation and eicosanoid production was evaluated. Acetylsalicylic acid decreased colony forming units of P. aeruginosa, but increased metabolic activity and eicosanoid production of the cells. In contrast to prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin F2a production by C. albicans was insensitive to acetylsalicylic acid, indicating that different enzymes are responsible for their production in this yeast. Nordihydroguaiaretic acid inhibited biofilm formation by P. aeruginosa, however co-incubation provided protection against this inhibitor. Production of these eicosanoids could affect pathogen-clearance and infection dynamics and this previously uncharacterized facet of interaction could facilitate novel therapeutic intervention against polymicrobial infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruan Fourie
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Ruan Ells
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa; National Control Laboratory for Biological Products, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Gabré Kemp
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Olihile M Sebolai
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Jacobus Albertyn
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Carolina H Pohl
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
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21
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Cellular Effects of Pyocyanin, a Secreted Virulence Factor of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8080236. [PMID: 27517959 PMCID: PMC4999852 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8080236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyocyanin has recently emerged as an important virulence factor produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The redox-active tricyclic zwitterion has been shown to have a number of potential effects on various organ systems in vitro, including the respiratory, cardiovascular, urological, and central nervous systems. It has been shown that a large number of the effects to these systems are via the formation of reactive oxygen species. The limitations of studies are, to date, focused on the localized effect of the release of pyocyanin (PCN). It has been postulated that, given its chemical properties, PCN is able to readily cross biological membranes, however studies have yet to be undertaken to evaluate this effect. This review highlights the possible manifestations of PCN exposure; however, most studies to date are in vitro. Further high quality in vivo studies are needed to fully assess the physiological manifestations of PCN exposure on the various body systems.
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22
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Fry CH, Vahabi B. The Role of the Mucosa in Normal and Abnormal Bladder Function. Basic Clin Pharmacol Toxicol 2016; 119 Suppl 3:57-62. [PMID: 27228303 DOI: 10.1111/bcpt.12626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 05/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The internal face of the detrusor smooth muscle wall of the urinary bladder is covered by a mucosa, separating muscle from the hostile environment of urine. However, the mucosa is more than a very low permeability structure and offers a sensory function that monitors the extent of bladder filling and composition of the urine. The mucosa may be considered as a single functional structure and comprises a tight epithelial layer under which is a basement membrane and lamina propria. The latter region itself is a complex of afferent nerves, blood vessels, interstitial cells and in some species including human beings a muscularis mucosae. Stress on the bladder wall through physical or chemical stressors elicits release of chemicals, such as ATP, acetylcholine, prostaglandins and nitric oxide that modulate the activity of either afferent nerves or the muscular components of the bladder wall. The release and responses are graded so that the mucosa forms a dynamic sensory structure, and there is evidence that the gain of this system is increased in pathologies such as overactive bladder and bladder pain syndrome. This system therefore potentially provides a number of drug targets against these conditions, once a number of fundamental questions are answered. These include how is mediator release regulated; what are the intermediate roles of interstitial cells that surround afferent nerves and blood vessels; and what is the mode of communication between urothelium and muscle - by diffusion of mediators or by cell-to-cell communication?
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher H Fry
- School of Physiology, Pharmacology & Neuroscience, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
| | - Bahareh Vahabi
- Department of Biological, Biomedical and Analytical Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, UK
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23
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Fourie R, Ells R, Swart CW, Sebolai OM, Albertyn J, Pohl CH. Candida albicans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Interaction, with Focus on the Role of Eicosanoids. Front Physiol 2016; 7:64. [PMID: 26955357 PMCID: PMC4767902 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is commonly found in mixed infections with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, especially in the lungs of cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Both of these opportunistic pathogens are able to form resistant biofilms and frequently infect immunocompromised individuals. The interaction between these two pathogens, which includes physical interaction as well as secreted factors, is mainly antagonistic. In addition, research suggests considerable interaction with their host, especially with immunomodulatory lipid mediators, termed eicosanoids. Candida albicans and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are both able to utilize arachidonic acid (AA), liberated from the host cells during infection, to form eicosanoids. The production of these eicosanoids, such as Prostaglandin E2, by the host and the pathogens may affect the dynamics of polymicrobial infection and the outcome of infections. It is of considerable importance to elucidate the role of host-produced, as well as pathogen-produced eicosanoids in polymicrobial infection. This review will focus on in vitro as well as in vivo interaction between C. albicans and P. aeruginosa, paying special attention to the role of eicosanoids in the cross-talk between host and the pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruan Fourie
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Ruan Ells
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free StateBloemfontein, South Africa; National Control Laboratory, University of the Free StateBloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Chantel W Swart
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Olihile M Sebolai
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Jacobus Albertyn
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Carolina H Pohl
- Pathogenic Yeast Research Group, Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State Bloemfontein, South Africa
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24
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Hughes FM, Turner DP, Todd Purves J. The potential repertoire of the innate immune system in the bladder: expression of pattern recognition receptors in the rat bladder and a rat urothelial cell line (MYP3 cells). Int Urol Nephrol 2015; 47:1953-64. [PMID: 26490556 DOI: 10.1007/s11255-015-1126-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The urothelium is a frontline sensor of the lower urinary tract, sampling the bladder lumen and stimulating an immune response to infectious and noxious agents. Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) recognize such agents and coordinate the innate response, often by forming inflammasomes that activate caspase-1 and the release of interleukin-1. We have shown the presence of one PRR (NLRP3) in the urothelia and its central role in the inflammatory response to cyclophosphamide. The purpose of this study was to (1) assess the likely range of the PPR response by assessing the repertoire present in the rat bladder and (2) determine the utility of the MYP3 rat urothelia cell line for in vitro studies by assessing its PPR repertoire and functional responsiveness. METHODS Immunohistochemistry was performed for seven PPRs (NLRP1, NLRP3, NLRP6, NLRP7, NLRP12, NLRC4 and AIM2) on bladder sections and MYP3 cells. For functionality, MYP3 cells were challenged with the quintessential NLRP3 activator ATP and assessed for caspase-1 activation. RESULTS All PPRs examined were expressed in the bladder and localized to the urothelial layer with several also in the detrusor (none in the interstitia). MYP3 cells also expressed all PRRs with a variable intracellular location. ATP-stimulated caspase-1 activity in MYP3 cells in a dose-dependent manner was reduced by knockdown of NLRP3 expression. CONCLUSION The results suggest that the bladder possesses the capacity to initiate an innate immune response to a wide array of uropathological agents and the MYP3 cells will provide an excellent investigational tool for this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis M Hughes
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, DUMC Box 3831, Durham, NC, 27710, USA. .,Department of Urology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA.
| | - David P Turner
- Department of Pathology and Lab Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
| | - J Todd Purves
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, DUMC Box 3831, Durham, NC, 27710, USA.,Department of Urology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA.,Department of Regenerative Medicine and Cell Biology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
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