Nicotine, cotinine, and β-nicotyrine inhibit NNK-induced DNA-strand break in the hepatic cell line HepaRG

Nicotine Inhibits the Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity of NNK Mediated by CYP2A13 in BEAS-2B Cells

Both tobacco-specific carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) and nicotine can be metabolized by cytochrome P450 2A13 (CYP2A13). Previous studies have shown that nicotine has a potential inhibitory effect on the toxicity of NNK. However, due to the lack of CYP2A13 activity in conventional lung cell lines, there had been no systematic in vitro investigation for the key target organ, the lung. Here, BEAS-2B cells stably expressing CYP2A13 (B-2A13 cells) were constructed to investigate the effects of nicotine on the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of NNK. The results showed more sensitivity for NNK-induced cytotoxicity in B-2A13 cells than in BEAS-2B and B-vector cells. NNK significantly induced DNA damage, cell cycle arrest, and chromosomal damage in B-2A13 cells, but had no significant effect on BEAS-2B cells and the vector control cells. The combination of different concentration gradient of nicotine without cytotoxic effects and a single concentration of NNK reduced or even counteracted the cytotoxicity and multi-dimensional genotoxicity in a dose-dependent manner. In conclusion, CYP2A13 caused the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of NNK in BEAS-2B cells, and the addition of nicotine could inhibit the toxicity of NNK.

Diallyl disulfide prevents cigarette smoke-induced emphysema in mice

INTRODUCTION

Cigarette smoke (CS) is the main risk factor for the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and pulmonary emphysema. The use of antioxidants has emerged as a potential therapeutic strategy to treat airway inflammation and lung diseases. In the current study, we investigated the potential therapeutic impact of diallyl disulfide (Dads) treatment in a murine model of CS-induced emphysema.

METHODS

C57BL/6 mice were exposed to CS for 60 consecutive days and treated with vehicle or Dads (30, 60 or 90 mg/kg) by oral gavage for the last 30 days, three times/week. The control group was sham-smoked and received vehicle treatment. All mice were euthanized 24 h after day 60; bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed and lungs were processed for further experimentation. Histological (HE stained sections, assessment of mean linear intercept (Lm)), biochemical (nitrite, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione transferase (GST), and malondialdehyde (MDA) equivalents), and molecular biology (metalloproteinase (MMP) 12, SOD2, carbonyl reductase 1 (CBR1), nitrotyrosine (PNK), 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and CYP2E1) analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Treatment with Dads dose-dependently reduced CS-induced leukocyte infiltration into the airways (based on BAL fluid counts) and improved lung histology (indicated by a reduction of Lm). Furthermore, CS exposure dramatically reduced the activity of the antioxidant enzymes SOD and GST in lung tissue and increased nitrite and MDA levels in BAL; these effects were all effectively counteracted by Dads treatment. Western blot analysis further confirmed the antioxidant potential of Dads, showing that treatment prevented the CS-induced decrease in SOD2 expression and increase in lung damage markers, such as CBR1, PNK, and 4-HNE. Furthermore, increased MMP12 (an important hallmark of CS-induced emphysema) and CYP2E1 lung protein levels were significantly reduced in mice receiving Dads treatment.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrate that treatment with Dads is effective in preventing multiple pathological features of CS-induced emphysema in an in vivo mouse model. In addition, we have identified several proteins/enzymes, including 4-HNE, CBR1, and CYP2E1, that are modifiable by Dads and could represent specific therapeutic targets for the treatment of COPD and emphysema.

Valproic acid affects fatty acid and triglyceride metabolism in HepaRG cells exposed to fatty acids by different mechanisms

Treatment with valproate is associated with hepatic steatosis, but the mechanisms are not fully elucidated in human cell systems. We therefore investigated the effects of valproate on fatty acid and triglyceride metabolism in HepaRG cells, a human hepatoma cell line. In previously fatty acid loaded HepaRG cells, valproate impaired lipid droplet disposal starting at 1 mM after incubation for 3 or 7 days. Valproate increased the expression of genes associated with fatty acid import and triglyceride synthesis, but did not relevantly affect expression of genes engaged in fatty acid activation. Valproate impaired mitochondrial fatty acid metabolism by inhibiting β-ketothiolase and the function of the electron transport chain, which was associated with increased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production. Valproate increased the mitochondrial DNA copy number per HepaRG cell, possibly as a consequence of impaired mitochondrial function. Valproate decreased the hepatocellular mRNA and protein expression of the fatty acid binding protein 1 (FABP1) and of the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTTP) at 1 mM and increased the hepatocellular concentration of free fatty acids. Furthermore, valproate decreased protein expression and excretion of ApoB100 in HepaRG cells at 1 mM, reflecting impaired formation and excretion of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). In conclusion, valproate increased the hepatocellular triglyceride content by multiple mechanisms, whereby impaired expression of FABP1 and MTTP as well as impaired VLDL formation and excretion appeared to be dominant. Valproate caused cell death mainly by apoptosis, which may be a consequence of mitochondrial oxidative stress and increased hepatocellular concentration of free fatty acids.

The inhibition of cytochrome P450 2A13-catalyzed NNK metabolism by NAT, NAB and nicotine

4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) is considered to be the most carcinogenic of the four tobacco-specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) and it needs to be metabolically activated to exert its carcinogenic effect on humans. For the simultaneous intake of NNK and other compounds with similar molecular structures in the context of tobacco smoke, whether (R,S)-N-nitrosoanatabine (NAT), (R,S)-N-nitrosoanabasine (NAB) and nicotine contribute to the inhibitory potency of the cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzyme-catalyzed NNK metabolism or not needs to be investigated. In the in vitro study, 4-oxo-4-(3-pyridyl) butanal (OPB), 4-hydroxy-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (HPB) and 4-oxo-4-(3-pyridyl) butanoic acid (OPBA) were established as the products of the CYP2A13-catalyzed NNK metabolism and the kinetic parameters were calculated from the Michaelis-Menten equation. Addition of NAT, NAB or nicotine resulted in a competitive inhibition for the NNK metabolism catalyzed by CYP2A13. The inhibition constant K_i values were calculated to be 0.21 μM (NAT), 0.23 μM (NAB) and 8.51 μM (nicotine) for OPB formation; 0.71 μM (NAT), 0.87 μM (NAB) and 25.01 μM (nicotine) for HPB formation and 0.36 μM (NAT), 0.50 μM (NAB) and 6.57 μM (nicotine) for OPBA formation, respectively. In addition, the study of the transformation of the three metabolites revealed OPB was not only an end product but also an intermediate product of the CYP2A13-catalyzed NNK metabolism. These results suggest that structurally similar tobacco constituents with weak or no carcinogenicity influence the metabolic activation of NNK, which interferes with its carcinogenicity to some extent.

Drugs of abuse and addiction: A slippery slope toward liver injury

Substances of abuse induce alteration in neurobehavioral symptoms, which can lead to simultaneous exacerbation of liver injury. The biochemical changes of liver are significantly observed in the abused group of people using illicit drugs or drugs that are abused. A huge amount of work has been carried out by scientists for validation experiments using animal models to assess hepatotoxicity in cases of drugs of abuse. The risk of hepatotoxicity from these psychostimulants has been determined by different research groups. Hepatotoxicity of these drugs has been recently highlighted and isolated case reports always have been documented in relation to misuse of the drugs. These drugs induce liver toxicity on acute or chronic dose dependent process, which ultimately lead to liver damage, acute fatty infiltration, cholestatic jaundice, liver granulomas, hepatitis, liver cirrhosis etc. Considering the importance of drug-induced hepatotoxicity as a major cause of liver damage, this review emphasizes on various drugs of abuse and addiction which induce hepatotoxicity along with their mechanism of liver damage in clinical aspect as well as in vitro and in vivo approach. However, the mechanisms of drug-induced hepatotoxicity is dependent on reactive metabolite formation via metabolism, modification of covalent bonding between cellular components with drug and its metabolites, reactive oxygen species generation inside and outside of hepatocytes, activation of signal transduction pathways that alter cell death or survival mechanism, and cellular mitochondrial damage, which leads to alteration in ATP generation have been notified here. Moreover, how the cytokines are modulated by these drugs has been mentioned here.

Evaluation of genotoxicity using automated detection of γH2AX in metabolically competent HepaRG cells

The in situ detection of γH2AX was recently reported to be a promising biomarker of genotoxicity. In addition, the human HepaRG hepatoma cells appear to be relevant for investigating hepatic genotoxicity since they express most of drug metabolizing enzymes and a wild type p53. The aim of this study was to determine whether the automated in situ detection of γH2AX positive HepaRG cells could be relevant for evaluation of genotoxicity after single or long-term repeated in vitro exposure compared to micronucleus assay. Metabolically competent HepaRG cells were treated daily with environmental contaminants and genotoxicity was evaluated after 1, 7 and 14 days. Using these cells, we confirmed the genotoxicity of aflatoxin B1 and benzo(a)pyrene and demonstrated that dimethylbenzanthracene, fipronil and endosulfan previously found genotoxic with comet or micronucleus assays also induced γH2AX phosphorylation. Furthermore, we showed that fluoranthene and bisphenol A induced γH2AX while no effect had been previously reported in HepG2 cells. In addition, induction of γH2AX was observed with some compounds only after 7 days, highlighting the importance of studying long-term effects of low doses of contaminants. Together, our data demonstrate that automated γH2AX detection in metabolically competent HepaRG cells is a suitable high-through put genotoxicity screening assay.