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Piontek M, Andreosso A, Smout M. Rapid and permanent cytotoxic effects of venom from Chiropsella bronzie and Malo maxima on human skeletal and cardiac muscle cells. Toxicon 2023; 233:107250. [PMID: 37572796 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/09/2023] [Indexed: 08/14/2023]
Abstract
Jellyfish envenomation is a global public health risk; Cubozoans (box jellyfish) are a prevalent jellyfish class with some species causing potent and potentially fatal envenomation in tropical Australian waters. Previous studies have explored the mechanism of action of venom from the lethal Cubozoan Chironex fleckeri and from Carukia barnesi (which causes "Irukandji syndrome"), but mechanistic knowledge to develop effective treatment is still limited. This study performed an in-vitro cytotoxic examination of the venoms of Chiropsella bronzie and Malo maxima, two understudied species that are closely related to Chironex fleckeri and Carukia barnesi respectively. Venom was applied to human skeletal muscle cells and human cardiomyocytes while monitoring with the xCELLigence system. Chiropsella bronzie caused rapid cytotoxicity at concentrations as low as 58.8 μg/mL. Malo maxima venom caused a notable increase in cell index, a measure of cell viability, followed by cytotoxicity after 24-h venom exposure at ≥11.2 μg/mL on skeletal muscle cells. In contrast, the cardiomyocytes mostly showed significant increased cell index at the higher M. maxima concentrations tested. These findings show that these venoms can exert cytotoxic effects and Malo maxima venom mainly caused a sustained increase in cell index across both human cell lines, suggesting a different mode of action to Chiropsella bronzie. As these venoms show different real-world envenomation symptoms, the different cellular toxicity profiles provide a first step towards developing improved understanding of mechanistic pathways and novel envenomation treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Piontek
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Molecular Development of Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Athena Andreosso
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
| | - Michael Smout
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia; Centre for Molecular Development of Therapeutics, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland, Australia
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Mohan Prakash RL, Hwang DH, Asirvatham RD, Hong IH, Kang C, Kim E. Identification of cardiorespiratory toxic components of Nemopilema nomurai jellyfish venom using sequential chromatography methods. Toxicon 2023; 229:107126. [PMID: 37054994 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/15/2023]
Abstract
Jellyfish stings pose a significant threat to humans in coastal areas worldwide, with venomous jellyfish species stinging millions of individuals annually. Nemopilema nomurai is one of the largest jellyfish species, with numerous tentacles rich in nematocysts. N. nomurai venom (NnV) is a complex mixture of proteins, peptides, and small molecules that serve as both prey-capture and defense mechanisms. Yet, the molecular identity of its cardiorespiratory and neuronal toxic components of NnV has not been clearly identified yet. Here, we isolated a cardiotoxic fraction, NnTP (Nemopilema nomurai toxic peak), from NnV using chromatographic methods. In the zebrafish model, NnTP exhibited strong cardiorespiratory and moderate neurotoxic effects. LC-MS/MS analysis identified 23 toxin homologs, including toxic proteinases, ion channel toxins, and neurotoxins. The toxins demonstrated a synergistic effect on the zebrafish, leading to altered swimming behavior, hemorrhage in the cardiorespiratory region, and histopathological changes in organs such as the heart, gill, and brain. These findings provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying the cardiorespiratory and neurotoxic effects of NnV, which could be useful in developing therapeutic strategies for venomous jellyfish stings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Du Hyeon Hwang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea; Institute of Animal Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea.
| | - Ravi Deva Asirvatham
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea.
| | - Il-Hwa Hong
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea; Institute of Animal Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea.
| | - Changkeun Kang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea; Institute of Animal Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea.
| | - Euikyung Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea; Institute of Animal Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, 52828, South Korea.
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Cunha SA, Dinis-Oliveira RJ. Raising Awareness on the Clinical and Forensic Aspects of Jellyfish Stings: A Worldwide Increasing Threat. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19148430. [PMID: 35886286 PMCID: PMC9324653 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19148430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Jellyfish are ubiquitous animals registering a high and increasing number of contacts with humans in coastal areas. These encounters result in a multitude of symptoms, ranging from mild erythema to death. This work aims to review the state-of-the-art regarding pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and relevant clinical and forensic aspects of jellyfish stings. There are three major classes of jellyfish, causing various clinical scenarios. Most envenomations result in an erythematous lesion with morphological characteristics that may help identify the class of jellyfish responsible. In rare cases, the sting may result in delayed, persistent, or systemic symptoms. Lethal encounters have been described, but most of those cases happened in the Indo-Pacific region, where cubozoans, the deadliest jellyfish class, can be found. The diagnosis is mostly clinical but can be aided by dermoscopy, skin scrapings/sticky tape, confocal reflectance microscopy, immunological essays, among others. Treatment is currently based on preventing further envenomation, inactivating the venom, and alleviating local and systemic symptoms. However, the strategy used to achieve these effects remains under debate. Only one antivenom is currently used and covers merely one species (Chironex fleckeri). Other antivenoms have been produced experimentally but were not tested on human envenomation settings. The increased number of cases, especially due to climate changes, justifies further research in the study of clinical aspects of jellyfish envenoming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Almeida Cunha
- Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; or
| | - Ricardo Jorge Dinis-Oliveira
- Department of Public Health and Forensic Sciences, and Medical Education, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; or
- TOXRUN—Toxicology Research Unit, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, CRL, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE—Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
- MTG Research and Development Lab, 4200-604 Porto, Portugal
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +351-224-157-216
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The pathology of Chironex fleckeri venom and known biological mechanisms. Toxicon X 2020; 6:100026. [PMID: 32550582 PMCID: PMC7285912 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxcx.2020.100026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The large box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri is found in northern Australian waters. A sting from this cubozoan species can kill within minutes. From clinical and animal studies, symptoms comprise severe pain, welts, scarring, hypotension, vasospasms, cardiac irregularities and cardiac arrest. At present, there is no cure and opioids are used to manage pain. Antivenom is available but controversy exists over its effectiveness. Experimental and combination therapies performed in vitro and in vivo have shown varied efficacy. These inconsistent results are likely a consequence of the different methods used to extract venom. Recent omics analysis has shed light on the systems of C. fleckeri venom action, including new toxin classes that use pore formation, cell membrane collapse and ion channel modulation. This review covers what is known on C. fleckeri pathomechanisms and highlights current gaps in knowledge. A more complete understanding of the mechanisms of C. fleckeri venom-induced pathology may lead to novel treatments and possibly, the discovery of novel cell pathways, novel drug scaffolds and novel drug targets for human disease.
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Pore-forming toxins in Cnidaria. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 72:133-141. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 07/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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Wang Q, Zhang H, Wang B, Wang C, Xiao L, Zhang L. β adrenergic receptor/cAMP/PKA signaling contributes to the intracellular Ca 2+ release by tentacle extract from the jellyfish Cyanea capillata. BMC Pharmacol Toxicol 2017; 18:60. [PMID: 28743285 PMCID: PMC5526252 DOI: 10.1186/s40360-017-0167-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Intracellular Ca2+ overload induced by extracellular Ca2+ entry has previously been confirmed to be an important mechanism for the cardiotoxicity as well as the acute heart dysfunction induced by jellyfish venom, while the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. Methods Under extracellular Ca2+-free or Ca2+-containing conditions, the Ca2+ fluorescence in isolated adult mouse cardiomyocytes pre-incubated with tentacle extract (TE) from the jellyfish Cyanea capillata and β blockers was scanned by laser scanning confocal microscope. Then, the cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) concentration and protein kinase A (PKA) activity in primary neonatal rat ventricular cardiomyocytes were determined by ELISA assay. Furthermore, the effect of propranolol against the cardiotoxicity of TE was evaluated in Langendorff-perfused rat hearts and intact rats. Results The increase of intracellular Ca2+ fluorescence signal by TE was significantly attenuated and delayed when the extracellular Ca2+ was removed. The β adrenergic blockers, including propranolol, atenolol and esmolol, partially inhibited the increase of intracellular Ca2+ in the presence of 1.8 mM extracellular Ca2+ and completely abolished the Ca2+ increase under an extracellular Ca2+-free condition. Both cAMP concentration and PKA activity were stimulated by TE, and were inhibited by the β adrenergic blockers. Cardiomyocyte toxicity of TE was antagonized by β adrenergic blockers and the PKA inhibitor H89. Finally, the acute heart dysfuction by TE was antagonized by propranolol in Langendorff-perfused rat hearts and intact rats. Conclusions Our findings indicate that β adrenergic receptor/cAMP/PKA signaling contributes to the intracellular Ca2+ overload through intracellular Ca2+ release by TE from the jellyfish C. capillata.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Wang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Bo Wang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Chao Wang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Liang Xiao
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Liming Zhang
- Department of Marine Biotechnology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
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Choudhary I, Lee H, Pyo MJ, Heo Y, Bae SK, Kwon YC, Yoon WD, Kang C, Kim E. Proteomics approach to examine the cardiotoxic effects of Nemopilema nomurai Jellyfish venom. J Proteomics 2015; 128:123-31. [PMID: 26193491 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2015] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Nemopilema nomurai is one of the largest species of jellyfish in the world. It blooms mainly offshore of Korea, China, and Japan. Increasing population numbers of N. nomurai is increasing the risk of sea bathers to the jellyfish stings and accompanying envenomations. Cardiovascular effects, and cytotoxicity and hemolytic activities have been previously reported in rodent models. To understand the mechanism of cardiac toxicity, we examined the effect of N. nomurai jellyfish venom (NnV) at the proteome level on rat cardiomyocytes cell line H9c2 using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF/MS). Cells treated with NnV displayed dose-dependent inhibition of viability. Cellular changes at proteome level were investigated after 6h and 12h of venom treatment. Electrophoretic examination revealed 72 protein spots displaying significant quantitative changes. These proteins were analyzed by MALDI-TOF/MS. Thirty four differentially expressed proteins were successfully identified; 24 proteins increased in quantity and 10 proteins decreased, compared to the respective controls. Proteins altered in content in Western blot analyses included myosin VII, annexin A2, aldose reductase, suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), and calumenin, which are well-known marker proteins of cardiac dysfunctions. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE This is the first report revealing the cardiac toxicity of NnV at the proteome level. NnV directly targeted proteins involved in cardiac dysfunction or maintenance. Suppressor of cytokine signaling 1 (SOCS1), which inhibits the Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway, was upregulated by NnV. Other proteins related to cardiac arrest that were over-expressed included aldose reductase and calumenin. These results clarify the underlying mechanism of cardiomyocyte damage caused by NnV. By inhibiting these particular targets and more precisely identifying the components of NnV-mediated cardiac toxicity, jellyfish venom-associated poisoning could be reduced or prevented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indu Choudhary
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunkyoung Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Jung Pyo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Yunwi Heo
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Seong Kyeong Bae
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Chul Kwon
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Duk Yoon
- Headquarters for Marine Environment, National Fisheries Research & Development Institute, Shiran-ri, Gijang-eup, Gijang-gun, Busan 619-705, Republic of Korea
| | - Changkeun Kang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea; Institutes of Agriculture and Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju, Republic of Korea
| | - Euikyung Kim
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea; Institute of Animal Medicine, Gyeongsang National University, Jinju 660-701, Republic of Korea.
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Chaisakul J, Isbister GK, Tare M, Parkington HC, Hodgson WC. Hypotensive and vascular relaxant effects of phospholipase A2 toxins from Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) venom. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 723:227-33. [PMID: 24296315 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) toxins are common and abundant components of Australasian elapid venoms. These toxins are associated with a range of activities including neurotoxicity, myotoxicity and coagulation disturbances. We have recently reported that sudden cardiovascular collapse induced by Papuan taipan (Oxyuranus scutellatus) venom involves a combination of the release of dilator autacoids and a direct effect on the smooth muscle. In this study, we aimed to isolate PLA2 components from Papuan taipan venom and investigate their contribution to the hypotensive action of this venom. O. scutellatus venom was fractionated using size-exclusion high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and fractions screened for activity in anaesthetized rats. Fraction three from O. scutellatus venom (i.e. OSC3, 14.2±1.0% of whole venom) produced a 64% decrease in mean arterial pressure. Reverse-phase HPLC indicated that OSC3 consisted of two major components (i.e. OSC3a and OSC3b). OSC3a and OSC3b produced a significant hypotensive response in anaesthetized rats which were attenuated by prior administration of indomethacin or the combination of mepyramine and heparin. N-terminal analysis indicated that OSC3a and b displayed sequence homology to PLA2 toxins isolated from coastal taipan (O. scutellatus scutellatus) venom. These findings indicate that PLA2 components may play an important role in the development of hypotension and vascular relaxation which may contribute to the effects observed after envenoming by these Australasian elapids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janeyuth Chaisakul
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia; Department of Pharmacology, Phramongkutklao College of Medicine, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
| | - Geoffrey K Isbister
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia; School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Newcastle, New South Wales 2300, Australia
| | - Marianne Tare
- Department of Physiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | | | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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Cuiping L, Pengcheng L, Jinhua F, Rongfeng L, Huahua Y. Cytotoxicity of the venom from the nematocysts of jellyfish Cyanea nozakii Kishinouye. Toxicol Ind Health 2011; 28:186-92. [DOI: 10.1177/0748233711410910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this article, the cytotoxicity of the venom from the nematocysts of jellyfish Cyanea nozakii Kishinouye on human hepatoma cells (Bel-7402, SMMC-7721) and human colon cancer cells (H630) was investigated first. Of the three kinds of cells, the venom had the strongest cytotoxicity on H630 cells with the 50% lethal concentration (IC50) of 5.1 μg/ml. However, the IC50 on Bel-7402 and SMMC-7721 was approximate 17.9 and 24.3 μg/ml, respectively. The cytotoxicity of the venom was affected by pH, temperature and storage conditions. At the pH 4.5–8.5, the venom displayed obvious cytotoxicity and the percentage of survival was about 50%. When pre-incubated at temperatures over 60°C for as short as 10 min, the percentage of survival sharply improved from 4.6% up to 80%. The venom was stored in a more stable condition at −80°C and in lyophilized state compared to other storage conditions used in this study. Lactate dehydrogenase release assay performed on H630 cells indicated that exposure to the venom could result in damage to the cell membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Cuiping
- Ocean University of China, Qingdao College, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Pengcheng
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Feng Jinhua
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Li Rongfeng
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Yu Huahua
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
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Li R, Yu H, Feng J, Xing R, Liu S, Wang L, Qin Y, Li K, Li P. Two-step purification and in vitro characterization of a hemolysin from the venom of jellyfish Cyanea nozakii Kishinouye. Int J Biol Macromol 2011; 49:14-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2011.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Revised: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Encounters with Venomous Sea-Life. J Emerg Med 2011; 40:103-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2009.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2009] [Revised: 10/10/2009] [Accepted: 10/27/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Xiao L, Liu GS, Wang QQ, He Q, Liu SH, Li Y, Zhang J, Zhang LM. The lethality of tentacle-only extract from jellyfish Cyanea capillata is primarily attributed to cardiotoxicity in anaesthetized SD rats. Toxicon 2010; 55:838-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Revised: 11/19/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Abstract
Cnidarians (Coelenterates), a very old and diverse animal phylum, possess a wide variety of biologically active substances that can be considered as toxins. Anthozoan toxins can be classified into two chemically very different groups, namely polypeptide toxins isolated from sea anemones and diterpenes isolated from octocorals. Cubozoan and scyphozoan protein toxins have been the most elusive cnidarian toxins to investigate - despite a tremendous effort in the past few decades, very few of these large, relatively unstable protein toxins were isolated, but recently this has been achieved for cubozoan venoms. Hydrozoans mainly contain large proteins with physiological mechanisms of action similar to the sea anemone and jellyfish pore-forming toxins. This article will focus on the in vivo physiological effects of cnidarian toxins and venoms; their actions at the cellular level will only be considered to understand their actions at the organ and whole animal levels. An understanding of mechanisms underlying the in vivo toxic effects will facilitate the development of more effective treatments of cnidarian envenomations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dusan Suput
- University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine, Vrazov trg 2, 1104 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Konstantakopoulos N, Isbister GK, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. A cell-based assay for screening of antidotes to, and antivenom against Chironex fleckeri (box jellyfish) venom. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2009; 59:166-70. [PMID: 19254771 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2009.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2009] [Accepted: 02/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Chironex fleckeri is a large box jellyfish that has been labelled the 'most venomous animal' in the world. We have recently shown that the primary effect of C. fleckeri venom in vivo is cardiovascular collapse. This study utilised a cell-based assay to examine the effects of C. fleckeri venom on the proliferation of a rat aortic smooth muscle cell line. In addition, the ability of CSL box jellyfish antivenom and/or various potential treatment strategies to neutralise the effects of the venom was examined. METHODS A7r5 cells were cultured in media containing venom. The effect of CSL box jellyfish antivenom (5 U/mL), CSL polyvalent snake antivenom (5 U/mL), lanthanum (5 microM), MgSO(4) (50 mM), verapamil (5 microM) or felodipine (5 microM) was examined. Cell viability was determined using a Cell titer 96 AQueous One Solution cell proliferation assay. RESULTS Incubation of A7r5 cells with serially diluted venom (2-0.004 microg/mL) caused a concentration-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation with an IC(50) value of 0.056 microg/mL. This response was not affected by the absence of calcium or the presence of lanthanum in the media. Box jellyfish antivenom (5 U/mL) prevented the inhibition of cell proliferation caused by the venom. Verapamil (5 microM) had no significant effect on the inhibition. In contrast, felodipine (5 microM) or MgSO(4) (50 mM) potentiated the effects of the venom and partially negated the protective effect of the antivenom. DISCUSSION This study displayed the ability to utilise a cell-based assay to determine the effects of C. fleckeri venom on vascular cell viability. It showed that CSL box jellyfish can neutralise the effects of the venom but only if added prior to the venom. In addition, potential adjunct therapies verapamil, felodipine and MgSO(4) were found to be ineffective, with felodipine and MgSO(4) potentiating the detrimental effects of the venom.
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Winter KL, Isbister GK, Jacoby T, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. An in vivo comparison of the efficacy of CSL box jellyfish antivenom with antibodies raised against nematocyst-derived Chironex fleckeri venom. Toxicol Lett 2009; 187:94-8. [PMID: 19429250 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2008] [Revised: 01/21/2009] [Accepted: 02/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although CSL box jellyfish antivenom (AV) remains the primary treatment for Chironex fleckeri envenoming, there has been considerable debate regarding its clinical effectiveness. Animal studies have shown that AV is largely ineffective in preventing C. fleckeri-induced cardiovascular collapse. This study examined the effectiveness of CSL box jellyfish AV (ovine IgG), raised against 'milked' venom, and polyclonal rabbit IgG antibodies (Ab) raised against nematocyst-derived venom. A venom dose of 30microg/kg, i.v., which causes an initial presser response (34+/-5mmHg; n=7) followed by cardiovascular collapse, was used in all experiments. A bolus dose of AV (3000U/kg, i.v.) or Ab (12mg; i.e. an equivalent protein 'load' to 3000U/kg AV), administered 15min prior to a bolus dose of venom, did not significantly attenuate the effects of venom. The venom response was also not significantly attenuated when AV (3000U/kg) was given as a bolus dose 10-60min prior to venom infusion. However, when the venom was incubated with either AV (3000U/kg) or Ab (12mg) for 3h prior to infusion, the effect of the venom was almost abolished. The results of this study demonstrate that antibodies raised against both 'milked' and nematocyst-derived venom are able to neutralise the cardiovascular collapse produced by the venom. However, large amounts of AV are required and must be preincubated with the venom to be protective. This indicates a very rapid action of the toxin(s) and that AV is unlikely to be clinically effective because it cannot be administered early enough.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly L Winter
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
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Underwood AH, Seymour JE. Venom ontogeny, diet and morphology in Carukia barnesi, a species of Australian box jellyfish that causes Irukandji syndrome. Toxicon 2007; 49:1073-82. [PMID: 17395227 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2007.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2006] [Revised: 01/20/2007] [Accepted: 01/29/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Venom profiles of two age groups of the medically important Australian box jellyfish Carukia barnesi [Southcott, R.V., 1967. Revision of some Carybdeidae (Scyphozoa, Cubomedusae), including description of jellyfish responsible for the 'Irukandji' syndrome. Aust. J. Zool. 15, 651-657] were compared. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis revealed differences in protein banding of tentacular venom between immature and mature animals. This correlates to a change in diet from invertebrate prey in immature C. barnesi medusae to vertebrate prey in mature medusae. Unlike other cubozoan studies, a change in venom did not equate to a change in nematocyst types or their relative frequencies. Additionally, comparison of tentacle structure and bell wart number showed developmental differences between the two age classes. Observations of prey capture in mature individuals and differences in bell warts between immature and mature medusae suggest different methods of prey capture are employed at different life stages of C. barnesi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Avril H Underwood
- Department of Zoology, School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, McGregor Road, Smithfield, Qld. 4878, Australia.
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Winter KL, Isbister GK, Seymour JE, Hodgson WC. An in vivo examination of the stability of venom from the Australian box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri. Toxicon 2007; 49:804-9. [PMID: 17215014 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2006.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2006] [Revised: 11/29/2006] [Accepted: 11/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We have previously characterised the pharmacological activity of a number of jellyfish venoms with a particular emphasis on the profound cardiovascular effects. It has been suggested that jellyfish venoms are difficult to work with and are sensitive to pH, temperature and chemical changes. The current study aimed to examine the working parameters of the venom of the Australian box jellyfish Chironex fleckeri to enable fractionation and isolation of the toxins with cardiovascular activity. C. fleckeri venom was made up fresh each day and subjected to a number of different environments (i.e. a pH range of 5-9 and a temperature range of 4-30 degrees C). In addition, the effect of freeze drying and reconstituting the venom was investigated. Venom (50 microg/kg, i.v.) produced a transient hypertensive response followed by cardiovascular collapse in anaesthetised rats. This biphasic response was not significantly effected by preparation of the venom at a pH of 5, 7 or 9. Similarly, venom (50 microg/kg, i.v.) did not display a loss of activity when exposed to temperatures of 4, 20 or 30 degrees C for 1.5h. However, the cardiovascular activity was abolished by boiling the venom. Freeze drying, and then reconstituting, the venom did not significantly affect its cardiovascular activity. However, repeated freeze drying and reconstituting of extracted venom resulted in a significantly loss of activity. This study provides a more detailed knowledge of the parameters in which C. fleckeri venom can be used and, while supporting some previous studies, contradicts some of the perceived problems of working with the venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- K L Winter
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Vic, Australia
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Kim E, Lee S, Kim JS, Yoon WD, Lim D, Hart AJ, Hodgson WC. Cardiovascular effects of Nemopilema nomurai (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae) jellyfish venom in rats. Toxicol Lett 2006; 167:205-11. [PMID: 17069996 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2006.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2006] [Revised: 09/22/2006] [Accepted: 09/22/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Over the past few years, populations of the giant jellyfish Nemopilema nomurai (Scyphozoa: Rhizostomeae) have increased dramatically in the waters of China, Korea, and Japan without any definitive reason. This has resulted in severe damage to fisheries in the areas. During a pilot study, we observed that the venom of N. nomurai produced a functional cardiac depression in mice. However, the mechanism of action was not examined. In the present study, we investigated the cardiovascular effects of nematocyst-derived venom from N. nomurai in anesthetized rats. Venom (0.1-2.4 mg protein/kg, i.v.) produced dose-dependent hypotension (65+/-12% of initial at a cumulative dose of 3 mg/kg) and bradycardia (80+/-5% of initial at a cumulative dose of 3 mg/kg). At the highest dose, this was characterized by a transient decrease in blood pressure (phase 1) followed by a return to basal level and then a slower decrease in blood pressure (phase 2). Venom also produced a decrease in rate and force of contraction in the rat isolated atria. Interestingly, venom induced a contraction of isolated aortic rings which was blocked by felodipine but not by prazosin, suggesting the contraction is mediated by calcium channel activation. These results suggest that the negative inotropic and chronotropic effects of the venom of N. nomurai may be due to a direct effect on the heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Euikyung Kim
- Laboratory of Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute of Life Science, Gyeongsang National University, Gajwa-Dong, Jinju 660-701, South Korea.
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Abstract
The seas and oceans around Australia harbour numerous venomous jellyfish. Chironex fleckeri, the box jellyfish, is the most lethal causing rapid cardiorespiratory depression and although its venom has been characterised, its toxins remain to be identified. A moderately effective antivenom exists which is also partially effective against another chirodropid, Chiropsalmus sp. Numerous carybdeids, some unidentified, cause less severe illness, including Carybdea rastoni whose toxins CrTX-A and CrTX-B are large proteins. Carukia barnesi, another small carybdeid is one cause of the 'Irukandji' syndrome which includes delayed pain from severe muscle cramping, vomiting, anxiety, restlessness, sweating and prostration, and occasionally severe hypertension and acute cardiac failure. The syndrome is in part caused by release of catecholamines but the cause of heart failure is undefined. The venom contains a sodium channel modulator. Two species of Physalia are present and although one is potentially lethal, has not caused death in Australian waters. Other significant genera of jellyfish include Tamoya, Pelagia, Cyanea, Aurelia and Chyrosaora.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Tibballs
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
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Li C, Yu H, Liu S, Xing R, Guo Z, Li P. Factors affecting the protease activity of venom from jellyfish Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2005; 15:5370-4. [PMID: 16213717 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2005.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2005] [Revised: 08/22/2005] [Accepted: 09/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, the effects of some chemical and physical factors such as temperature, pH values, glycerol, and divalent metal cations on the protease activity of venom from jellyfish, Rhopilema esculentum Kishinouye, were assayed. Protease activity was dependent on temperature and pH values. Zn(2+), Mg(2+), and Mn(2+) in sodium phosphate buffer (0.02M, pH 8.0) could increase protease activity. Mn(2+) had the best effects among the three metal cations and the effect was about 20 times of that of Zn(2+) or Mg(2+) and its maximal protease activity was 2.3x10(5)U/mL. EDTA could increase protease activity. PMSF had hardly affected protease activity. O-Phenanthroline and glycerol played an important part in inhibiting protease activity and their maximal inhibiting rates were 87.5% and 82.1%, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuiping Li
- Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao 266071, China
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