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Menezes C, Thakur NL. Sea anemone venom: Ecological interactions and bioactive potential. Toxicon 2022; 208:31-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Revised: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Krishnarjuna B, Sunanda P, Villegas-Moreno J, Csoti A, A V Morales R, Wai DCC, Panyi G, Prentis P, Norton RS. A disulfide-stabilised helical hairpin fold in acrorhagin I: An emerging structural motif in peptide toxins. J Struct Biol 2020; 213:107692. [PMID: 33387653 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2020.107692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Acrorhagin I (U-AITX-Aeq5a) is a disulfide-rich peptide identified in the aggressive organs (acrorhagi) of the sea anemone Actinia equina. Previous studies (Toxicon 2005, 46:768-74) found that the peptide is toxic in crabs, although the structural and functional properties of acrorhagin I have not been reported. In this work, an Escherichia coli (BL21 strain) expression system was established for the preparation of 13C,15N-labelled acrorhagin I, and the solution structure was determined using NMR spectroscopy. Structurally, acrorhagin I is similar to B-IV toxin from the marine worm Cerebratulus lacteus (PDB id 1VIB), with a well-defined helical hairpin structure stabilised by four intramolecular disulfide bonds. The recombinant peptide was tested in patch-clamp electrophysiology assays against voltage-gated potassium and sodium channels, and in bacterial and fungal growth inhibitory assays and haemolytic assays. Acrorhagin I was not active against any of the ion channels tested and showed no activity in functional assays, indicating that this peptide may possess a different biological function. Metal ion interaction studies using NMR spectroscopy showed that acrorhagin I bound zinc and nickel, suggesting that its function might be modulated by metal ions or that it may be involved in regulating metal ion levels and their transport. The similarity between the structure of acrorhagin I and that of B-IV toxin from a marine worm suggests that this fold may prove to be a recurring motif in disulfide-rich peptides from marine organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bankala Krishnarjuna
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Punnepalli Sunanda
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Jessica Villegas-Moreno
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Centro de Investigaciones Químicas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Mexico
| | - Agota Csoti
- Department of Biophysics and Cell Biology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; MTA-DE-NAP B Ion Channel Structure-Function Research Group, RCMM, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Rodrigo A V Morales
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Dorothy C C Wai
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Gyorgy Panyi
- Department of Biophysics and Cell Biology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; MTA-DE-NAP B Ion Channel Structure-Function Research Group, RCMM, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Peter Prentis
- School of Earth, Environmental and Biological Sciences, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; Institute for Future Environments, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Raymond S Norton
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, 381 Royal Parade, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; ARC Centre for Fragment-Based Design, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
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A tentacle for every occasion: comparing the hunting tentacles and sweeper tentacles, used for territorial competition, in the coral Galaxea fascicularis. BMC Genomics 2020; 21:548. [PMID: 32770938 PMCID: PMC7430897 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-020-06952-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Coral reefs are among the most diverse, complex and densely populated marine ecosystems. To survive, morphologically simple and sessile cnidarians have developed mechanisms to catch prey, deter predators and compete with adjacent corals for space, yet the mechanisms underlying these functions are largely unknown. Here, we characterize the histology, toxic activity and gene expression patterns in two different types of tentacles from the scleractinian coral Galaxea fascilcularis – catch tentacles (CTs), used to catch prey and deter predators, and sweeper tentacles (STs), specialized tentacles used for territorial aggression. Results STs exhibit more mucocytes and higher expression of mucin genes than CTs, and lack the ectodermal cilia used to deliver food to the mouth and remove debris. STs and CTs also express different sensory rhodopsin-like g-protein coupled receptors, suggesting they may employ different sensory pathways. Each tentacle type has a different complement of stinging cells (nematocytes), and the expression in the two tentacles of genes encoding structural nematocyte proteins suggests the stinging cells develop within the tentacles. CTs have higher neurotoxicity to blowfly larvae and hemolytic activity compared to the STs, consistent with a role in prey capture. In contrast, STs have higher phospholipase A2 activity, which we speculate may have a role in inducing tissue damage during territorial aggression. The expression of genes encoding cytolytic toxins (actinoporins) and phospholipases also differs between the tentacle types. Conclusions These results show that the same organism utilizes two distinct tentacle types, each equipped with a different venom apparatus and toxin composition, for prey capture and defense and for territorial aggression.
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Abstract
Animals utilize an incredible array of traits for offence and defence during conflict. These traits range from exaggerated morphological structures such as the antlers of stags and the horns of beetles, to an arsenal of noxious chemicals emitted, secreted, and injected. However, the breadth of these traits appears to be underappreciated in our current thinking about aggression in animals. Use of the term "weapon" in the current literature is largely restricted to studies of conspicuous morphological structures used by males during contests over access to females, and as a result, our understanding of other types of weapons is limited. In this article, I explore the diversity of traits utilized by animals to manipulate and control the behavior of other individuals in a number of agonistic contexts, with the aim to encourage a reappraisal of the way in which behavioral and evolutionary biologists view animal weapons. I discuss the advantages of including this broader range of traits in studies of animal weaponry and explore the unifying features that distinguish animal weapons from other traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Lane
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, School of Biological and Marine Sciences, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon, PL4 8AA, UK
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Thangaraj S, Bragadeeswaran S, Gokula V. Bioactive Compounds of Sea Anemones: A Review. Int J Pept Res Ther 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10989-018-9786-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Bastos CLQ, Varela AS, Ferreira SP, Nornberg BF, Boyle RT. Who knows not where an anemone does wear his sting? Could polypeptides released from the columnar vesicles of Bunodosoma cangicum induce apoptosis in the ZF-L cell line? Toxicon 2016; 124:73-82. [PMID: 27794434 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2016] [Revised: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
We provide ultrastructural and cytological evidence that the tentacles of the sea anemone Bunodosoma cangicum does not contain cytotoxic venom. However, we show that the stimulated secretion of an apparent mixture of biomolecules containing polypeptides from the columnar vesicles of Bunodosoma cangicum is apparently a potent inducer of apoptosis in the zebrafish cell line, ZF-L. Microscopic fluorescence, cell morphology and flow cytometric assays confirm the apoptotic activity. Crude vesicle venom was partially purified by size exclusion chromatography. PAGE analysis shows that this venom contains low weight polypeptides but no measurable protein. The apoptotic activity is heat labile, and the observed peptides concurrent with this activity have a molecular weight of approximately 2000 Da. This manuscript is the first report of biologically active molecules and peptides associated with columnar vesicles of anemones, and the first to confirm that the tentacles of B. cangicum do not contain cytotoxic venom, and express spirocytes exclusively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio L Q Bastos
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Antonio Sergio Varela
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Shana Pires Ferreira
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Bruna Felix Nornberg
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil
| | - Robert Tew Boyle
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas - Fisiologia Animal Comparada, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil; Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande - FURG, Rio Grande, RS, Brazil.
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Molecular basis for the toxin insensitivity of scorpion voltage-gated potassium channel MmKv1. Biochem J 2016; 473:1257-66. [DOI: 10.1042/bcj20160178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Our work is the first to uncover the mechanisms by which scorpions resist their own venoms at the ion channel receptor level and enriched our knowledge of the co-evolution of venomous animals and their venoms for hundreds of million years.
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Armoza-Zvuloni R, Schneider A, Sher D, Shaked Y. Rapid Hydrogen Peroxide release from the coral Stylophora pistillata during feeding and in response to chemical and physical stimuli. Sci Rep 2016; 6:21000. [PMID: 26875833 PMCID: PMC4753443 DOI: 10.1038/srep21000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 01/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Corals make use of different chemical compounds during interactions with prey, predators and aggressors. Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) is produced and released by a wide range of organisms as part of their defense against grazers or pathogens. In coral reefs, the large fluxes and relatively long half-life of H2O2, make it a potentially important info-chemical or defense molecule. Here we describe a previously unstudied phenomenon of rapid H2O2 release from the reef-building coral Stylophora pistillata during feeding on zooplankton and in response to chemical and physical stimuli. Following stimuli, both symbiotic and bleached corals were found to rapidly release H2O2 to the surrounding water for a short period of time (few minutes). The H2O2 release was restricted to the site of stimulus, and an increase in physical stress and chemical stimuli concentration resulted in elevated H2O2 release. Omission of calcium (a key regulator of exocytotic processes) from the experimental medium inhibited H2O2 release. Hence we suggest that H2O2 is actively released in response to stimuli, rather than leaking passively from the coral tissue. We estimate that at the site of stimulus H2O2 can reach concentrations potentially high enough to deter predators or motile, potentially pathogenic, bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Armoza-Zvuloni
- Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat, 88103, Israel
- The Fredy & Nadine Herrmann Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
| | - Avi Schneider
- Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat, 88103, Israel
| | - Daniel Sher
- Department of Marine Biology, Charney School of Marine Sciences, Haifa University, Haifa, Israel
| | - Yeala Shaked
- Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences, Eilat, 88103, Israel
- The Fredy & Nadine Herrmann Institute of Earth Sciences, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, 91904, Israel
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Macrander J, Brugler MR, Daly M. A RNA-seq approach to identify putative toxins from acrorhagi in aggressive and non-aggressive Anthopleura elegantissima polyps. BMC Genomics 2015; 16:221. [PMID: 25886045 PMCID: PMC4397815 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-015-1417-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The use of venom in intraspecific aggression is uncommon and venom-transmitting structures specifically used for intraspecific competition are found in few lineages of venomous taxa. Next-generation transcriptome sequencing allows robust characterization of venom diversity and exploration of functionally unique tissues. Using a tissue-specific RNA-seq approach, we investigate the venom composition and gene ontology diversity of acrorhagi, specialized structures used in intraspecific competition, in aggressive and non-aggressive polyps of the aggregating sea anemone Anthopleura elegantissima (Cnidaria: Anthozoa: Hexacorallia: Actiniaria: Actiniidae). RESULTS Collectively, we generated approximately 450,000 transcripts from acrorhagi of aggressive and non-aggressive polyps. For both transcriptomes we identified 65 candidate sea anemone toxin genes, representing phospholipase A2s, cytolysins, neurotoxins, and acrorhagins. When compared to previously characterized sea anemone toxin assemblages, each transcriptome revealed greater within-species sequence divergence across all toxin types. The transcriptome of the aggressive polyp had a higher abundance of type II voltage gated potassium channel toxins/Kunitz-type protease inhibitors and type II acrorhagins. Using toxin-like proteins from other venomous taxa, we also identified 612 candidate toxin-like transcripts with signaling regions, potentially unidentified secretory toxin-like proteins. Among these, metallopeptidases and cysteine rich (CRISP) candidate transcripts were in high abundance. Furthermore, our gene ontology analyses identified a high prevalence of genes associated with "blood coagulation" and "positive regulation of apoptosis", as well as "nucleoside: sodium symporter activity" and "ion channel binding". The resulting assemblage of expressed genes may represent synergistic proteins associated with toxins or proteins related to the morphology and behavior exhibited by the aggressive polyp. CONCLUSION We implement a multifaceted approach to investigate the assemblage of expressed genes specifically within acrorhagi, specialized structures used only for intraspecific competition. By combining differential expression, phylogenetic, and gene ontology analyses, we identify several candidate toxins and other potentially important proteins in acrorhagi of A. elegantissima. Although not all of the toxins identified are used in intraspecific competition, our analysis highlights some candidates that may play a vital role in intraspecific competition. Our findings provide a framework for further investigation into components of venom used exclusively for intraspecific competition in acrorhagi-bearing sea anemones and potentially other venomous animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Macrander
- The Ohio State University, Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210-1293, USA.
| | - Mercer R Brugler
- Sackler Institute for Comparative Genomics, Division of Invertebrate Zoology, American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West at 79th Street, New York, NY, 10024, USA. .,Biological Sciences Department, NYC College of Technology (CUNY), 300 Jay Street, Brooklyn, NY, 11201, USA.
| | - Marymegan Daly
- The Ohio State University, Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH, 43210-1293, USA.
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Lee CC, Hsieh HJ, Hsieh CH, Hwang DF. Antioxidative and anticancer activities of various ethanolic extract fractions from crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2014; 38:761-773. [PMID: 25305737 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2014.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2014] [Accepted: 08/31/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Many studies currently researching marine invertebrates to determine the therapeutic potential of their bioactive materials have been showing very promising results. The crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, an Echinodermata of the class Asteroidea, is infamous as the unique venomous starfish and as a destroyer of coral reefs. Starfish possesses many useful pharmacological and biological characteristics. In this study, A. planci was extracted with 70% ethanol and lyophilized to obtain an ethanol fraction. The ethanol fraction was dissolved with water and defatted with petroleum ether to obtain a non-polar fraction. The residual solution was successively partitioned with ethylacetate and butanol to obtain an ethylacetate fraction and butanol fraction, respectively. Four fractions were used to examine the antioxidant and anticancer properties. The ethanol fraction of A. planci contained the highest antioxidant effects such as ABTS, DPPH, Fe(2+) chelating activity and reducing power when compared with four fractions. Among the four fractions, the butanol fraction was especially shown to inhibit human malignant melanoma A375.S2 cells' proliferation, which is involved in the apoptotic progression. This fraction could induce apoptosis and even necrosis in A375.S2 cells as evidenced by double staining with an Annexin V-FITC and PI assay and DNA fragmentation analysis. These results indicated that the starfish A. planci is a good resource for obtaining the biologically active substances for antioxidant and anticancer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Chiu Lee
- Department of Food Science and Center of Excellence for the Ocean, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung 202, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hernyi Justin Hsieh
- Penghu Marine Biology Research Center, Fishery Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, Magong, Penghu 880, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cheng-Hong Hsieh
- Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, 500, Lioufeng Road, Wufeng, Taichung 413, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Deng-Fwu Hwang
- Department of Food Science and Center of Excellence for the Ocean, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung 202, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, 500, Lioufeng Road, Wufeng, Taichung 413, Taiwan, ROC.
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Lee CC, Hsieh HJ, Hsieh CH, Hwang DF. Spine venom of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) induces antiproliferation and apoptosis of human melanoma cells (A375.S2). Toxicon 2014; 91:126-34. [PMID: 25159188 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.08.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 08/04/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) is a venomous starfish. In this study, the extraction of A. planci spine venom (ASV) was performed by phosphate saline buffer, followed by assaying the cytotoxicity on human normal and tumor cells. It was found that human melanoma cells (A375.S2) were the most sensitive to the ASV solution. The cells, after incubation with ASV, significantly appeared to decrease cell viability and increase lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release with a dose-dependent relationship. The extract of spine promoted loss of mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and induced inter-nucleosomal DNA fragmentation in human melanoma cells. The cells exhibited apoptosis by using propidium iodide (PI) staining of DNA fragmentation; it was then determined by flow cytometry (sub-G1 peak). The molecular cytotoxicity of ASV was tested through evaluation of the apoptosis/necrosis ratio by double staining with annexin V and PI assay. The A. planci spine venom showed significant antiproliferation. The human melanoma cells revealed apoptosis at low dose (1.25 μg/ml), and necrosis occurred at high dose (5 μg/ml).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Chiu Lee
- Department of Food Science and Center of Excellence for the Ocean, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung 202, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Hernyi Justin Hsieh
- Penghu Marine Biology Research Center, Fishery Research Institute, Council of Agriculture, Magong, Penghu 880, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Cheng-Hong Hsieh
- Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, 500, Lioufeng Road, Wufeng, Taichung 413, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Deng-Fwu Hwang
- Department of Food Science and Center of Excellence for the Ocean, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung 202, Taiwan, ROC; Department of Health and Nutrition Biotechnology, Asia University, 500, Lioufeng Road, Wufeng, Taichung 413, Taiwan, ROC.
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Lee CC, Hsieh HJ, Hwang DF. Cytotoxic and apoptotic activities of the plancitoxin I from the venom of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) on A375.S2 cells. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 35:407-17. [PMID: 25047904 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2014] [Revised: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
This study reports on a cytotoxic toxin derived from the venom of the crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci (CAV). The protein toxin was isolated through both ion-exchange and gel-filtration chromatography, and characterized by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and mass spectrum analyzes. The CAV was identified as plancitoxin I protein. The mechanistic role of the CAV toxin was explored in human malignant melanoma A375.S2 cell death. The results indicated that after incubation with CAV toxin, cells significantly decreased in A375.S2 cell viability and increased in the lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level in a dose-dependent manner. The assays indicated that CAV toxin promoted reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, induced nitric oxide (NO) formation, lost mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) and induced inter-nucleosomal DNA fragmentation in A375.S2 cells. The molecular cytotoxicity of the CAV toxin was tested through evaluation of the apoptosis/necrosis ratio by double staining with annexin V-FITC and a propidium iodide (PI) assay. The results suggested that CAV toxin induced a cytotoxic effect in A375.S2 cells via the apoptotic procedure, and may be associated with the regulation of the p38 pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Chiu Lee
- Department of Food Science and Center of Excellence for Marine Bioenvironment and Biotechnology, National Taiwan Ocean University, 2 Pei-Ning Road, Keelung, 202, Taiwan, ROC
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Lipid peroxidation is another potential mechanism besides pore-formation underlying hemolysis of tentacle extract from the jellyfish Cyanea capillata. Mar Drugs 2013; 11:67-80. [PMID: 23303301 PMCID: PMC3564158 DOI: 10.3390/md11010067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2012] [Revised: 11/02/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was performed to explore other potential mechanisms underlying hemolysis in addition to pore-formation of tentacle extract (TE) from the jellyfish Cyanea capillata. A dose-dependent increase of hemolysis was observed in rat erythrocyte suspensions and the hemolytic activity of TE was enhanced in the presence of Ca2+, which was attenuated by Ca2+ channel blockers (Diltiazem, Verapamil and Nifedipine). Direct intracellular Ca2+ increase was observed after TE treatment by confocal laser scanning microscopy, and the Ca2+ increase could be depressed by Diltiazem. The osmotic protectant polyethylenglycol (PEG) significantly blocked hemolysis with a molecular mass exceeding 4000 Da. These results support a pore-forming mechanism of TE in the erythrocyte membrane, which is consistent with previous studies by us and other groups. The concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA), an important marker of lipid peroxidation, increased dose-dependently in rat erythrocytes after TE treatment, while in vitro hemolysis of TE was inhibited by the antioxidants ascorbic acid-Vitamin C (Vc)-and reduced glutathione (GSH). Furthermore, in vivo hemolysis and electrolyte change after TE administration could be partly recovered by Vc. These results indicate that lipid peroxidation is another potential mechanism besides pore-formation underlying the hemolysis of TE, and both Ca2+ channel blockers and antioxidants could be useful candidates against the hemolytic activity of jellyfish venoms.
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Oxidative stress induced by crude venom from the jellyfish Pelagia noctiluca in neuronal-like differentiated SH-SY5Y cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2012; 26:694-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2012.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Frazão B, Vasconcelos V, Antunes A. Sea anemone (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Actiniaria) toxins: an overview. Mar Drugs 2012; 10:1812-1851. [PMID: 23015776 PMCID: PMC3447340 DOI: 10.3390/md10081812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2012] [Revised: 07/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The Cnidaria phylum includes organisms that are among the most venomous animals. The Anthozoa class includes sea anemones, hard corals, soft corals and sea pens. The composition of cnidarian venoms is not known in detail, but they appear to contain a variety of compounds. Currently around 250 of those compounds have been identified (peptides, proteins, enzymes and proteinase inhibitors) and non-proteinaceous substances (purines, quaternary ammonium compounds, biogenic amines and betaines), but very few genes encoding toxins were described and only a few related protein three-dimensional structures are available. Toxins are used for prey acquisition, but also to deter potential predators (with neurotoxicity and cardiotoxicity effects) and even to fight territorial disputes. Cnidaria toxins have been identified on the nematocysts located on the tentacles, acrorhagi and acontia, and in the mucous coat that covers the animal body. Sea anemone toxins comprise mainly proteins and peptides that are cytolytic or neurotoxic with its potency varying with the structure and site of action and are efficient in targeting different animals, such as insects, crustaceans and vertebrates. Sea anemones toxins include voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels toxins, acid-sensing ion channel toxins, Cytolysins, toxins with Kunitz-type protease inhibitors activity and toxins with Phospholipase A2 activity. In this review we assessed the phylogentic relationships of sea anemone toxins, characterized such toxins, the genes encoding them and the toxins three-dimensional structures, further providing a state-of-the-art description of the procedures involved in the isolation and purification of bioactive toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Frazão
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 177, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; (B.F.); (V.V.)
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Vitor Vasconcelos
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 177, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; (B.F.); (V.V.)
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Antunes
- CIMAR/CIIMAR, Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, Universidade do Porto, Rua dos Bragas 177, 4050-123 Porto, Portugal; (B.F.); (V.V.)
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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Rudin FS, Briffa M. Is boldness a resource-holding potential trait? Fighting prowess and changes in startle response in the sea anemone, Actinia equina. Proc Biol Sci 2011; 279:1904-10. [PMID: 22171080 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2011.2418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Contest theory predicts the evolution of a stable mixture of different strategies for fighting. Here, we investigate the possibility that stable between-individual differences in startle-response durations influence fighting ability or 'resource-holding potential' (RHP) in the beadlet sea anemone, Actinia equina. Both winners and losers showed significant repeatability of pre-fight startle-response durations but mean pre-fight startle-response durations were greater for eventual losers than for eventual winners, indicating that RHP varies with boldness. In particular, individuals with short startle responses inflicted more attacks on their opponent. Both repeatability and mean-level responses were changed by the experience of fighting, and these changes varied with outcome. In losers, repeatability was disrupted to a greater extent and the mean startle-response durations were subject to a greater increase than in winners. Thus, following a fight, this behavioural correlate of RHP behaves in a way similar to post-fight changes in physiological status, which can also vary between winners and losers. Understanding the links between aggression and boldness therefore has the potential to enhance our understanding of both the evolution of animal personality and the 'winner and loser effects' of post-fight changes in RHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian S Rudin
- Marine Biology and Ecology Research Centre, University of Plymouth, PL3 8AA, UK
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Harmata KL, Blackstone NW. Reactive oxygen species and the regulation of hyperproliferation in a colonial hydroid. Physiol Biochem Zool 2011; 84:481-93. [PMID: 21897085 DOI: 10.1086/661952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Colonies of Podocoryna carnea circulate gastrovascular fluid among polyps via tubelike stolons. At polyp-stolon junctions, mitochondrion-rich cells in part regulate this gastrovascular flow. During competition, colonies hyperproliferate nematocytes and stolons; nematocysts are discharged until one colony is killed. Hyperproliferation then ceases, and normal growth resumes. Here, competing colonies were treated with azide, which inhibits respiration and upregulates reactive oxygen species (ROS). After the cessation of competition, azide-treated colonies continued to hyperproliferate. In azide-treated competing colonies, however, mitochondrion-rich cells were found to produce similar amounts of ROS as those in untreated competing colonies. Subsequent experiments showed that both azide treatment and competition diminished the lumen widths at polyp-stolon junctions, where mitochondrion-rich cells are found. In competing colonies, these diminished widths may also diminish the metabolic demand on these cells, causing mitochondria to enter the resting state and emit more ROS. Indeed, results with two fluorescent probes show that mitochondrion-rich cells in competing colonies produce more ROS than those in noncompeting colonies. In sum, these results suggest that competition perturbs the usual activity of mitochondrion-rich cells, altering their redox state and increasing ROS formation. Via uncharacterized pathways, these ROS may contribute to hyperproliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Harmata
- Department of Biological Sciences, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, Illinois 60115, USA
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Rudin FS, Briffa M. The logical polyp: assessments and decisions during contests in the beadlet anemone Actinia equina. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arr125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Abstract
Sea anemones produce a variety of toxic peptides and proteins, including many ion channel blockers and modulators, as well as potent cytolysins. This review describes the structures that have been determined to date for the major classes of peptide and protein toxins. In addition, established and emerging methods for structure determination are summarized and the prospects for modelling newly described toxins are evaluated. In common with most other classes of proteins, toxins display conformational flexibility which may play a role in receptor binding and function. The prospects for obtaining atomic resolution structures of toxins bound to their receptors are also discussed.
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Ueda A, Wu CF. Effects of social isolation on neuromuscular excitability and aggressive behaviors in Drosophila: altered responses by Hk and gsts1, two mutations implicated in redox regulation. J Neurogenet 2009; 23:378-94. [PMID: 19863269 PMCID: PMC3632667 DOI: 10.3109/01677060903063026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Social deprivation is known to trigger a variety of behavioral and physiological modifications in animal species, but the underlying genetic and cellular mechanisms are not fully understood. As we described previously, adult female flies reared in isolation show increased frequency of aggressive behaviors than those reared in a group. Here, we report that isolated rearing also caused significantly altered nerve and muscle excitability and enhanced synaptic transmission at larval neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). We found that mutations of two genes, Hyperkinetic (Hk) and glutathione S-transferase-S1 (gsts1), alter the response to social isolation in Drosophila. Hk and gsts1 mutations increased adult female aggression and larval neuromuscular hyperexcitability, even when reared in a group. Unlike wild type, these behavioral and electrophysiological phenotypes were not further enhanced in these mutants by isolated rearing. Products of these two genes have been implicated in reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism. We previously reported in these mutants increased signals from an ROS probe at larval NMJs, and this study revealed distinct effects of isolation rearing on these mutants, compared to the control larvae in ROS-probe signals. Our data further demonstrated modified nerve and muscle excitability by a reducing agent, dithiothreitol. Our results suggest that altered cellular ROS regulation can exert pleiotropic effects on nerve, synapse, and muscle functions and may involve different redox mechanisms in different cell types to modify behavioral expressions. Therefore, ROS regulation may take part in the cellular responses to social isolation stress, underlying an important form of neural and behavioral plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Ueda
- Department of Biology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, USA.
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