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Schendel V, Müller CHG, Kenning M, Maxwell M, Jenner RA, Undheim EAB, Sombke A. The venom and telopodal defence systems of the centipede Lithobius forficatus are functionally convergent serial homologues. BMC Biol 2024; 22:135. [PMID: 38867210 PMCID: PMC11170834 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-024-01925-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Evolution of novelty is a central theme in evolutionary biology, yet studying the origins of traits with an apparently discontinuous origin remains a major challenge. Venom systems are a well-suited model for the study of this phenomenon because they capture several aspects of novelty across multiple levels of biological complexity. However, while there is some knowledge on the evolution of individual toxins, not much is known about the evolution of venom systems as a whole. One way of shedding light on the evolution of new traits is to investigate less specialised serial homologues, i.e. repeated traits in an organism that share a developmental origin. This approach can be particularly informative in animals with repetitive body segments, such as centipedes. RESULTS Here, we investigate morphological and biochemical aspects of the defensive telopodal glandular organs borne on the posterior legs of venomous stone centipedes (Lithobiomorpha), using a multimethod approach, including behavioural observations, comparative morphology, proteomics, comparative transcriptomics and molecular phylogenetics. We show that the anterior venom system and posterior telopodal defence system are functionally convergent serial homologues, where one (telopodal defence) represents a model for the putative early evolutionary state of the other (venom). Venom glands and telopodal glandular organs appear to have evolved from the same type of epidermal gland (four-cell recto-canal type) and while the telopodal defensive secretion shares a great degree of compositional overlap with centipede venoms in general, these similarities arose predominantly through convergent recruitment of distantly related toxin-like components. Both systems are composed of elements predisposed to functional innovation across levels of biological complexity that range from proteins to glands, demonstrating clear parallels between molecular and morphological traits in the properties that facilitate the evolution of novelty. CONCLUSIONS The evolution of the lithobiomorph telopodal defence system provides indirect empirical support for the plausibility of the hypothesised evolutionary origin of the centipede venom system, which occurred through functional innovation and gradual specialisation of existing epidermal glands. Our results thus exemplify how continuous transformation and functional innovation can drive the apparent discontinuous emergence of novelties on higher levels of biological complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Schendel
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Carsten H G Müller
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Matthes Kenning
- Zoological Institute and Museum, University of Greifswald, Loitzer Strasse 26, Greifswald, 17489, Germany
| | - Michael Maxwell
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | | | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
- Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0316, Norway.
| | - Andy Sombke
- Centre for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Cell and Developmental Biology, Medical University of Vienna, Schwarzspanierstrasse 17, Vienna, 1090, Austria.
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Integrative Zoology, University of Vienna, Djerassiplatz 1, 1030, Austria.
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Phenotypic description of Egyptian endemic centipedes, genus Scolopendra Linnaeus, 1758 with a histological study of its venom glands. ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-022-00573-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
AbstractCentipedes are widely distributed over all continents. They have significant medicinal value and high toxicity, making them an intriguing subject for evolutionary research. The current study aims to provide the first comprehensive analysis of the morphology, description, and distribution preferences of the Egyptian Scolopendromorpha centipede fauna. According to surveillance research in Egypt, two Scolopendra species have been re-described. Scolopendra canidensNewport.1844 were discovered in only one location, whereas Scolopendra morsitans s Linnaeus,1758 was more abundant. Both venomous glands were histochemically investigated. This study is the first comparative report on the histology and histochemistry of the venom glands of the Egyptian centipede species. Both species’ glands are primarily composed of columnar secretory cells radially arranged side by side and open through pores in a central chitinous duct. Each secretory cell is enclosed in striated muscle fibers. The secretion of both glands takes the shape of small PAS-positive granules, suggesting the presence of neutral polysaccharides. According to this surveillance study, the most abundant species was Scolopendra morsitans s Linnaeus,1758. Scolopendra canidens canidensNewport.1844 were found only on the Northwest coast of Egypt. The findings also revealed that the analyzed species are comparable in terms of their venom morphology and fundamental chemical composition.
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De Lucca Caetano LH, Nishiyama-Jr MY, de Carvalho Lins Fernandes Távora B, de Oliveira UC, de Loiola Meirelles Junqueira-de-Azevedo I, Faquim-Mauro EL, Magalhães GS. Recombinant Production and Characterization of a New Toxin from Cryptops iheringi Centipede Venom Revealed by Proteome and Transcriptome Analysis. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:858. [PMID: 34941696 PMCID: PMC8704451 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13120858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the Chilopoda class of centipede, the Cryptops genus is one of the most associated with envenomation in humans in the metropolitan region of the state of São Paulo. To date, there is no study in the literature about the toxins present in its venom. Thus, in this work, a transcriptomic characterization of the Cryptops iheringi venom gland, as well as a proteomic analysis of its venom, were performed to obtain a toxin profile of this species. These methods indicated that 57.9% of the sequences showed to be putative toxins unknown in public databases; among them, we pointed out a novel putative toxin named Cryptoxin-1. The recombinant form of this new toxin was able to promote edema in mice footpads with massive neutrophils infiltration, linking this toxin to envenomation symptoms observed in accidents with humans. Our findings may elucidate the role of this toxin in the venom, as well as the possibility to explore other proteins found in this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lhiri Hanna De Lucca Caetano
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (L.H.D.L.C.); (B.d.C.L.F.T.); (E.L.F.-M.)
| | - Milton Yutaka Nishiyama-Jr
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (M.Y.N.-J.); (U.C.d.O.); (I.d.L.M.J.-d.-A.)
| | | | - Ursula Castro de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Toxinologia Aplicada, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (M.Y.N.-J.); (U.C.d.O.); (I.d.L.M.J.-d.-A.)
| | | | - Eliana L. Faquim-Mauro
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (L.H.D.L.C.); (B.d.C.L.F.T.); (E.L.F.-M.)
| | - Geraldo Santana Magalhães
- Laboratório de Imunopatologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil; (L.H.D.L.C.); (B.d.C.L.F.T.); (E.L.F.-M.)
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4
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Vonk FJ, Bittenbinder MA, Kerkkamp HMI, Grashof DGB, Archer JP, Afonso S, Richardson MK, Kool J, van der Meijden A. A non-lethal method for studying scorpion venom gland transcriptomes, with a review of potentially suitable taxa to which it can be applied. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0258712. [PMID: 34793470 PMCID: PMC8601437 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0258712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Scorpion venoms are mixtures of proteins, peptides and small molecular compounds with high specificity for ion channels and are therefore considered to be promising candidates in the venoms-to-drugs pipeline. Transcriptomes are important tools for studying the composition and expression of scorpion venom. Unfortunately, studying the venom gland transcriptome traditionally requires sacrificing the animal and therefore is always a single snapshot in time. This paper describes a new way of generating a scorpion venom gland transcriptome without sacrificing the animal, thereby allowing the study of the transcriptome at various time points within a single individual. By comparing these venom-derived transcriptomes to the traditional whole-telson transcriptomes we show that the relative expression levels of the major toxin classes are similar. We further performed a multi-day extraction using our proposed method to show the possibility of doing a multiple time point transcriptome analysis. This allows for the study of patterns of toxin gene activation over time a single individual, and allows assessment of the effects of diet, season and other factors that are known or likely to influence intraindividual venom composition. We discuss the gland characteristics that may allow this method to be successful in scorpions and provide a review of other venomous taxa to which this method may potentially be successfully applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freek J. Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
- Animal Science and Health Cluster, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mátyás A. Bittenbinder
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Faculty of Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Harald M. I. Kerkkamp
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Animal Science and Health Cluster, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | | | - John P. Archer
- CIBIO-InBIO, Biopolis, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Sandra Afonso
- CIBIO-InBIO, Biopolis, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Michael K. Richardson
- Animal Science and Health Cluster, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Kool
- Faculty of Sciences, Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amsterdam Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Insects, arachnids and centipedes venom: A powerful weapon against bacteria. A literature review. Toxicon 2017; 130:91-103. [PMID: 28242227 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Currently, new antimicrobial molecules extracted or obtained by natural sources, could be a valide alternative to traditional antibiotics. Most of these molecules are represented by antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which are essential compounds of insect, arachnids and centipedes venom. AMPs, due to their strong effectiveness, low resistance rates and peculiar mode of action, seem to have all the suitable features to be a powerful weapon against several bacteria, especially considering the increasing antibiotic-resistance phenomena. The present literature review focuses on the antibacterial activity of bee, wasp, ant, scorpion, spider and scolopendra crude venom and of their main biological active compounds. After a brief overview of each animal and venom use in folkloristic medicine, this review reports, in a comprehensive table, the results obtained by the most relevant and recent researches carried out on the antibacterial activity of different venom and their AMPs. For each considered study, the table summarizes data concerning minimal inhibitory concentration values, minimal bactericidal concentration values, the methods employed, scientific name and common names and provenience of animal species from which the crude venom and its respective compounds were obtained.
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6
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Involvement of mast cells and histamine in edema induced in mice by Scolopendra viridicornis centipede venom. Toxicon 2016; 121:51-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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7
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Hakim MA, Yang S, Lai R. Centipede venoms and their components: resources for potential therapeutic applications. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:4832-51. [PMID: 26593947 PMCID: PMC4663536 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7114832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Venomous animals have evolved with sophisticated bio-chemical strategies to arrest prey and defend themselves from natural predators. In recent years, peptide toxins from venomous animals have drawn considerable attention from researchers due to their surprising chemical, biochemical, and pharmacological diversity. Similar to other venomous animals, centipedes are one of the crucial venomous arthropods that have been used in traditional medicine for hundreds of years in China. Despite signifying pharmacological importance, very little is known about the active components of centipede venoms. More than 500 peptide sequences have been reported in centipede venomous glands by transcriptome analysis, but only a small number of peptide toxins from centipede has been functionally described. Like other venomous animals such as snakes, scorpions, and spiders, the venom of centipedes could be an excellent source of peptides for developing drugs for treatments as well as bio-insecticides for agrochemical applications. Although centipede venoms are yet to be adequately studied, the venom of centipedes as well as their components described to date, should be compiled to help further research. Therefore, based on previous reports, this review focusses on findings and possible therapeutic applications of centipede venoms as well as their components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Abdul Hakim
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of sciences, Kunming 650223, Yunnan, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100009, China.
| | - Shilong Yang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of sciences, Kunming 650223, Yunnan, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing100009, China.
| | - Ren Lai
- Key Laboratory of Animal Models and Human Disease Mechanisms, Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of sciences, Kunming 650223, Yunnan, China.
- Joint Laboratory of Natural Peptide, University of Science and Technology of China and Kunming Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650223, China.
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8
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Alves TJS, Wanderley-Teixeira V, Teixeira ÁAC, Alves LC, Araújo BC, Barros EM, Cunha FM. Morphological and histological characterization of production structures, storage and distribution of venom in the parasitic wasp Bracon vulgaris. Toxicon 2015; 108:104-7. [PMID: 26472253 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2015] [Revised: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
It was described the morphology and histological composition of the structures related to production, storage and distribution of Bracon vulgaris venom, a wasp that parasite their hosts after the inoculation of a venom which causes irreversible paralysis. Were found 22 glandular filaments, coated with secretory epithelium associated with a reservoir coated internally by a chitin layer and externally by striated muscular fibers. A valve mediates the passage of the toxin to venom duct towards the parasitoids sting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiago J S Alves
- Departamento de Agronomia - Entomologia, UFRPE, 52171-900 Recife, PE, Brazil.
| | | | - Álvaro A C Teixeira
- Departamento de Morfologia e Fisiologia Animal, UFRPE, 52171-900 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Luiz C Alves
- Departamento de Biologia Celular e Ultraestruturas, CPqAM/ FIOCRUZ, 52020-200 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Breno C Araújo
- Núcleo de Pesquisa em Inovação Terapêutica, UFPE, 50670-901 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Eduardo M Barros
- Departamento de Agronomia - Entomologia, UFRPE, 52171-900 Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Franklin M Cunha
- Departamento de Agronomia - Entomologia, UFRPE, 52171-900 Recife, PE, Brazil
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9
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Production and packaging of a biological arsenal: evolution of centipede venoms under morphological constraint. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:4026-31. [PMID: 25775536 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1424068112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom represents one of the most extreme manifestations of a chemical arms race. Venoms are complex biochemical arsenals, often containing hundreds to thousands of unique protein toxins. Despite their utility for prey capture, venoms are energetically expensive commodities, and consequently it is hypothesized that venom complexity is inversely related to the capacity of a venomous animal to physically subdue prey. Centipedes, one of the oldest yet least-studied venomous lineages, appear to defy this rule. Although scutigeromorph centipedes produce less complex venom than those secreted by scolopendrid centipedes, they appear to rely heavily on venom for prey capture. We show that the venom glands are large and well developed in both scutigerid and scolopendrid species, but that scutigerid forcipules lack the adaptations that allow scolopendrids to inflict physical damage on prey and predators. Moreover, we reveal that scolopendrid venom glands have evolved to accommodate a much larger number of secretory cells and, by using imaging mass spectrometry, we demonstrate that toxin production is heterogeneous across these secretory units. We propose that the differences in venom complexity between centipede orders are largely a result of morphological restrictions of the venom gland, and consequently there is a strong correlation between the morphological and biochemical complexity of this unique venom system. The current data add to the growing body of evidence that toxins are not expressed in a spatially homogenous manner within venom glands, and they suggest that the link between ecology and toxin evolution is more complex than previously thought.
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10
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Undheim EAB, Fry BG, King GF. Centipede venom: recent discoveries and current state of knowledge. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:679-704. [PMID: 25723324 PMCID: PMC4379518 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7030679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Centipedes are among the oldest extant venomous predators on the planet. Armed with a pair of modified, venom-bearing limbs, they are an important group of predatory arthropods and are infamous for their ability to deliver painful stings. Despite this, very little is known about centipede venom and its composition. Advances in analytical tools, however, have recently provided the first detailed insights into the composition and evolution of centipede venoms. This has revealed that centipede venom proteins are highly diverse, with 61 phylogenetically distinct venom protein and peptide families. A number of these have been convergently recruited into the venoms of other animals, providing valuable information on potential underlying causes of the occasionally serious complications arising from human centipede envenomations. However, the majority of venom protein and peptide families bear no resemblance to any characterised protein or peptide family, highlighting the novelty of centipede venoms. This review highlights recent discoveries and summarises the current state of knowledge on the fascinating venom system of centipedes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eivind A B Undheim
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, the University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- School of Biological Sciences, the University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, the University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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11
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von Reumont BM, Campbell LI, Jenner RA. Quo vadis venomics? A roadmap to neglected venomous invertebrates. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:3488-551. [PMID: 25533518 PMCID: PMC4280546 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6123488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2014] [Revised: 11/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomics research is being revolutionized by the increased use of sensitive -omics techniques to identify venom toxins and their transcripts in both well studied and neglected venomous taxa. The study of neglected venomous taxa is necessary both for understanding the full diversity of venom systems that have evolved in the animal kingdom, and to robustly answer fundamental questions about the biology and evolution of venoms without the distorting effect that can result from the current bias introduced by some heavily studied taxa. In this review we draw the outlines of a roadmap into the diversity of poorly studied and understood venomous and putatively venomous invertebrates, which together represent tens of thousands of unique venoms. The main groups we discuss are crustaceans, flies, centipedes, non-spider and non-scorpion arachnids, annelids, molluscs, platyhelminths, nemerteans, and echinoderms. We review what is known about the morphology of the venom systems in these groups, the composition of their venoms, and the bioactivities of the venoms to provide researchers with an entry into a large and scattered literature. We conclude with a short discussion of some important methodological aspects that have come to light with the recent use of new -omics techniques in the study of venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lahcen I Campbell
- Department of Life Sciences, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, SW7 5BD London, UK.
| | - Ronald A Jenner
- Department of Life Sciences, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, SW7 5BD London, UK.
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12
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Cooper AM, Fox GA, Nelsen DR, Hayes WK. Variation in venom yield and protein concentration of the centipedes Scolopendra polymorpha and Scolopendra subspinipes. Toxicon 2014; 82:30-51. [PMID: 24548696 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Venom generally comprises a complex mixture of compounds representing a non-trivial metabolic expense. Accordingly, natural selection should fine-tune the amount of venom carried within an animal's venom gland(s). The venom supply of scolopendromorph centipedes likely influences their venom use and has implications for the severity of human envenomations, yet we understand very little about their venom yields and the factors influencing them. We investigated how size, specifically body length, influenced volume yield and protein concentration of electrically extracted venom in Scolopendra polymorpha and Scolopendra subspinipes. We also examined additional potential influences on yield in S. polymorpha, including relative forcipule size, relative mass, geographic origin (Arizona vs. California), sex, time in captivity, and milking history. Volume yield was linearly related to body length, and S. subspinipes yielded a larger length-specific volume than S. polymorpha. Body length and protein concentration were uncorrelated. When considering multiple influences on volume yield in S. polymorpha, the most important factor was body length, but yield was also positively associated with relative forcipule length and relative body mass. S. polymorpha from California yielded a greater volume of venom with a higher protein concentration than conspecifics from Arizona, all else being equal. Previously milked animals yielded less venom with a lower protein concentration. For both species, approximately two-thirds of extractable venom was expressed in the first two pulses, with remaining pulses yielding declining amounts, but venom protein concentration did not vary across pulses. Further study is necessary to ascertain the ecological significance of the factors influencing venom yield and how availability may influence venom use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allen M Cooper
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Griggs Hall #101, Loma Linda University, 24941 Stewart St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
| | - Gerad A Fox
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Griggs Hall #101, Loma Linda University, 24941 Stewart St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - David R Nelsen
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Griggs Hall #101, Loma Linda University, 24941 Stewart St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Griggs Hall #101, Loma Linda University, 24941 Stewart St., Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
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Chen M, Li J, Zhang F, Liu Z. Isolation and characterization of SsmTx-I, a Specific Kv2.1 blocker from the venom of the centipede Scolopendra Subspinipes Mutilans
L. Koch. J Pept Sci 2014; 20:159-64. [DOI: 10.1002/psc.2588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2013] [Revised: 10/20/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Minzhi Chen
- College of Life Science; Hunan Normal University; Changsha 410081 China
| | - Jing Li
- College of Life Science; Hunan Normal University; Changsha 410081 China
| | - Fan Zhang
- College of Life Science; Hunan Normal University; Changsha 410081 China
| | - Zhonghua Liu
- College of Life Science; Hunan Normal University; Changsha 410081 China
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14
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Müller CHG, Rosenberg J, Hilken G. Ultrastructure, functional morphology and evolution of recto-canal epidermal glands in Myriapoda. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2014; 43:43-61. [PMID: 24012854 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2013.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2010] [Revised: 08/03/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In Chilopoda, solitary epidermal glands are composed of a couple of cells only. These glands are highly abundant on the entire body surface and are distributed throughout the single-layered epidermis. Some authors provided more or less comprehensive observations on the structure of epidermal glands of specific chilopod taxa. However, no information is hitherto available on the ultrastructural diversity of these glands. Furthermore, potential homologies of these chilopod epidermal glands and of their characteristic cellular components remain unknown. Based on our results, we are now able to distinguish two types of epidermal glands in Chilopoda that can be clearly distinguished by their structure and the course of their conducting canal: recto-canal epidermal glands (rceg) and flexo-canal epidermal glands (fceg). In the present paper, we focus on the rceg. We examined the ultrastructural organization of these glands in the head region and on the anterior trunk segments of various representatives of the five extant chilopod orders by light- and electron-microscopy. According to our terminology, rceg consist of up to five different cell types including: a) distal canal cells, b) proximal canal cells, c) intermediary cells, and d) two different types of secretory cells. Intermediary and canal cells form a common conducting canal. The rceg may taxon-specifically differ in relative size and subcellular architecture, but all have the following features in common: 1) a wide distribution on various body regions among all five chilopod subtaxa, 2) the straight, broad and locally dilated conducting canal surrounded by closely packed microvilli or microvilliform infoldings around the apex of the canal cell(s), and 3) the tendency to aggregate to form compound glandular organs of massive size and complexity. Tricellular glandular units established by three different cell types are observed in Scutigeromorpha and Geophilomorpha, whereas four cell types constitute rceg in Lithobiomorpha and Craterostigmomorpha. Five different cell types per glandular unit are found only in Scolopendromorpha. The partial cuticularization of the lower part of the conducting canal formed by the intermediary cell, as found in Chilopoda, differs from the pattern described for equivalent euarthropod epidermal glands, as for instance in Hexapoda. Their wide distribution in Chilopoda and Progoneata makes it likely that tricellular rceg were at least present in the last common ancestor of the Myriapoda. Concerning Chilopoda, the evolution of highly diverse rceg is well explained on the basis of the Pleurostigmophora concept. Glands of the recto-canal type are also found in other arthropods. The paper discusses cases where homology of rceg and also fceg may be assumed beyond Myriapoda and briefly evaluates the potentials and the still-to-be-solved issues prior to use them as an additional character system to reconstruct the phylogeny of the Euarthropoda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten H G Müller
- Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Zoologisches Institut und Museum, Abteilung Cytologie und Evolutionsbiologie, Soldmannstr. 23, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany; Universität Rostock, Institut für Biowissenschaften, Lehrstuhl für Allgemeine & Spezielle Zoologie, Universitätsplatz 2, D-18051 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Jörg Rosenberg
- Universität Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Zentrales Tierlaboratorium, Hufelandstr. 55, D-45122 Essen, Germany.
| | - Gero Hilken
- Universität Duisburg-Essen, Universitätsklinikum Essen, Zentrales Tierlaboratorium, Hufelandstr. 55, D-45122 Essen, Germany.
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Kimura LF, Prezotto-Neto JP, Távora BDCLF, Antoniazzi MM, Knysak I, Gióia Guizze SP, Santoro ML, Barbaro KC. Local inflammatory reaction induced by Scolopendra viridicornis centipede venom in mice. Toxicon 2013; 76:239-46. [PMID: 24140924 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Centipede envenomation is generally mild, and human victims usually manifest burning pain, erythema and edema. Despite the abundance and ubiquity of these animals, centipede venom has been poorly characterized in literature. For this reason, the aim of this work was to investigate local inflammatory features induced by Scolopendra viridicornis centipede envenomation in mice, evaluating edema formation, leukocyte infiltration, production of inflammatory mediators, and also performing histological analysis. The highest edematogenic activity induced by the venom, determined by plethysmometry, was noticed 0.5 h after injection in mice footpad. At 24 h, edema was still detected in animals that received 15 and 60 μg of venom, and at 48 h, only in animals injected with 60 μg of venom. In relation to leukocyte count, S. viridicornis venom induced cell recruitment, mainly neutrophils and monocytes/macrophages, in all doses and time periods analyzed in comparison with PBS-injected mice. An increase in lymphocytes was detected especially between 1 and 24 h at 60 μg dose. Besides, eosinophil recruitment was observed mainly for 15 and 60 μg doses in early time periods. Edema formation and cell recruitment were also confirmed by histological analysis. Moreover, S. viridicornis venom stimulated the release of IL-6, MCP-1, KC, and IL-1β. Conversely, S. viridicornis venom did not induce the release of detectable levels of TNF-α. We demonstrated that the edematogenic activity induced by S. viridicornis venom was of rapid onset, and the venom stimulated secretion of pro-inflammatory mediators which contribute to the inflammatory reaction induced by S. viridicornis venom in an experimental model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Faggionato Kimura
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Butantan Institute, Av. Vital Brasil 1500, 05503-900 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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16
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Surcel C, Savu C, Chibelean C, Iordache A, Mirvald C, Sinescu I. Comparative analysis of different surgical procedures for female stress urinary incontinence. Is stem cell implantation the future? ROMANIAN JOURNAL OF MORPHOLOGY AND EMBRYOLOGY 2012; 14:128-37. [PMID: 22395514 DOI: 10.1111/j.1525-142x.2011.00527.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) represents a major public health problem and although there are many treatments available, only a few can restore the anatomical background of this disorder. Injections of stem cells into the middle urethra have the possibility of restoring the contractility of the striated muscles and rhabdosphincters. The aim of stem cell therapy is to replace, repair or enhance the biological function of damaged tissue or organs. OBJECTIVE Assessing the latest minimally invasive procedures of intra and perisphincterian injection of autologous stem cells and to compare the urodynamic results at one year after different surgical procedures for genuine stress urinary incontinence by measuring their impact on urinary flow rate (Qmax) and bladder pressure at Qmax during micturition. METHODS AND RESULTS On October 18, 2010, in "Fundeni" Clinic of Urology and Renal Transplantation we performed for the first time in Romania, stem cell implantation in the urethral sphincter in four patients with stress urinary incontinence and compared the results of the urodynamic investigations of female patients operated with pure SUI with other surgical techniques. The analyzed procedures were: Burch colposuspension (11 cases), TVT-like (IVS sling in 26 cases), TOT-like (CYSTO-SWING sling in 41 cases). Followed variables were: Qmax, Pves at Qmax, postvoiding residual (PVR). Clinical examination and voiding diary in six weeks after the surgery revealed a decrease of urine loss with an improvement of the patient' quality of life according to visual analogue scale. For female patients with myoblasts implant, changes in Qmax and Pves at Qmax were minimal and statistically insignificant in the context of inclusion criteria, but we noticed a trend of minimal change in these urodynamic characteristics, namely, an average decrease of Qmax with 2.1 mL/s and an average increase of Pves at Qmax with 0.6 cmH(2)O. CONCLUSIONS The development of myoblasts implant (if they will pass the time-proof test) could represent a breakthrough in treating this condition. As the pathogenesis of SUI is better understood and the development of tissue engineering technology advances, tissue engineering will play a more important role in the treatment of patients with SUI.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Surcel
- Fundeni Clinic of Urology and Renal Transplantation, Bucharest, Romania.
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Dugon MM, Black A, Arthur W. Variation and specialisation of the forcipular apparatus of centipedes (Arthropoda: Chilopoda): a comparative morphometric and microscopic investigation of an evolutionary novelty. ARTHROPOD STRUCTURE & DEVELOPMENT 2012; 41:231-243. [PMID: 22370199 DOI: 10.1016/j.asd.2012.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 02/08/2012] [Accepted: 02/15/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The forcipules of centipedes are the only known example in the animal kingdom of an evolutionary transition from walking legs to venom-injecting appendages. They provide a classic case of an evolutionary novelty under most (but not all) definitions of that concept. Although there is a reasonable literature on forcipules, and on the forcipular segment more generally, it is fragmentary and scattered. Also, many previous studies have been based on a single species and hence have no comparative component. Here, we build on this earlier literature by providing detailed qualitative and quantitative information on the forcipular segments of representatives of the five extant orders of centipedes. Our results reveal notable differences between the orders - as well as considerable variation within some of them. The pattern of inter-group differences can be used to infer, albeit cautiously, a major evolutionary trend from a presumed scutigeromorph-like last common ancestor (LCA), in which the forcipules were probably leg-like (as in present-day scutigeromorphs) to a more specialized claw-like structure with movement restricted to the horizontal plane. This morphological trend may reflect an ecological trend from open-habitat ambush predation to leaf-litter and subterranean predatory opportunism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel M Dugon
- Department of Zoology, School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
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Undheim EAB, King GF. On the venom system of centipedes (Chilopoda), a neglected group of venomous animals. Toxicon 2011; 57:512-24. [PMID: 21255597 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2010] [Revised: 12/08/2010] [Accepted: 01/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Centipedes are among the oldest extant terrestrial arthropods and are an ecologically important group of soil and leaf litter predators. Despite their abundance and frequent, often painful, encounters with humans, little is known about the venom and venom apparatus of centipedes, although it is apparent that these are both quite different from other venomous lineages. The venom gland can be regarded as an invaginated cuticle and epidermis, consisting of numerous epithelial secretory units each with its own unique valve-like excretory system. The venom contains several different enzymes, but is strikingly different to most other arthropods in that metalloproteases appear to be important. Myotoxic, cardiotoxic, and neurotoxic activities have been described, most of which have been attributed to high molecular weight proteins. Neurotoxic activities are also unusual in that G-protein coupled receptors often seem to be involved, either directly as targets of neurotoxins or indirectly by activating endogenous agonists. These relatively slow responses may be complemented by the rapid effects caused by histamines present in the venom and from endogenous release of histamines induced by venom cytotoxins. The differences probably reflect the ancient and independent evolutionary history of the centipede venom system, although they may also be somewhat exaggerated by the paucity of information available on this largely neglected group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eivind A B Undheim
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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