Review: Biotechnology of mycotoxins detoxification using microorganisms and enzymes

Fluorescent solid-state strips based on SiO2 shell-stabilized perovskite nanocrystals applying for magnetic aptasensing detection of aflatoxin B1 toxin in food

In this work, the perovskite fluorescent nanocrystals (CsPbBr3) were successfully synthesized and wrapped with SiO2 shell, utilized for the assembly of solid-state detection strip capable of conveniently and specifically detection of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The SiO2 coating aimed to enhance the stability of CsPbBr3 nanocrystals. The resulting CsPbBr3@SiO2 material exhibited remarkable fluorescence properties, and further self-assembled onto solid-state plate, generating AFB1-specific quenched fluorescence at a specific wavelength of 515 nm. When combined with the capture of AFB1 by magnetic nanoparticles conjugated with aptamers (MNPs-Apt), it was achieved the good separation and specific detection of AFB1 toxin in food matrices. The constructed fluorescent solid-state detection strip based on CsPbBr3@SiO2 exhibited good response to AFB1 toxin within a linear range of 0.1-100 ng mL-1 and an impressive detection limit as low as 0.053 ng mL-1. This presents a new strategy for the rapid screening and convenient detection of highly toxic AFB1.

Kefir mitigates renal damage caused by zearalenone in female wistar rats by reducing oxidative stress

The estrogen-like mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) was popularly occurred in several food and feeds, posing threats to human and animal health. ZEA induced renal toxicity and caused oxidative stress. In the current study, the protecting effect of kefir administration against ZEA-induced renal damage in rats was explored. Rats were divided into 4 groups, each consisting of 5 animals. For the initial 7 days, they were orally administered sterile milk (200 μL/day). Subsequently, during the second week, the groups were exposed to kefir (200 μL/day), ZEA (40 mg/kg b.w./day) and a combination of kefir and ZEA. The biochemical parameters, kidney histological changes and ZEA residue were assessed. Kefir supplementation enhanced the antioxidant enzymes in the kidney, such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase activities, which increased by 1.2, 4 and 20 folds, respectively, relative to the ZEA group. Remarkably, the concomitant administration kefir + ZEA suppressed ZEA residues in both serum and kidney. Additionally, serum levels of blood urea nitrogen, uric acid and renal malondialdehyde decreased by 22, 65 and 54%, respectively, in the kefir + ZEA group; while, the creatinine content increased by around 60%. Rats co-treated with kefir showed a normal kidney histological architecture contrary to tissues alterations mediated in the ZEA group. These results suggest that kefir may showed a protective effect on the kidneys, mitigating ZEA-induced acute toxicity in rats.

The role of larvae of black soldier fly and house fly and of feed substrate microbes in biotransformation of aflatoxin B1

Over the past few years, there has been growing interest in the ability of insect larvae to convert various organic side-streams containing mycotoxins into insect biomass that can be used as animal feed. Various studies have examined the effects of exposure to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on a variety of insect species, including the larvae of the black soldier fly (BSFL; Hermetia illucens L.; Diptera: Stratiomyidae) and the housefly (HFL; Musca domestica L.; Diptera: Muscidae). Most of these studies demonstrated that AFB1 degradation takes place, either enzymatic and/or non-enzymatic. The possible role of feed substrate microorganisms (MOs) in this process has thus far not been investigated. The main objective of this study was therefore to investigate whether biotransformation of AFB1 occurred and whether it is caused by insect-enzymes and/or by microbial enzymes of MOs in the feed substrate. In order to investigate this, sterile and non-sterile feed substrates were spiked with AFB1 and incubated either with or without insect larvae (BSFL or HFL). The AFB1 concentration was determined via LC-MS/MS analyses and recorded over time. Approximately 50% of the initially present AFB1 was recovered in the treatment involving BSFL, which was comparable to the treatment without BSFL (60%). Similar patterns were observed for HFL. The molar mass balance of AFB1 for the sterile feed substrates with BSFL and HFL was 73% and 78%, respectively. We could not establish whether non-enzymatic degradation of AFB1 in the feed substrates occurred. The results showed that both BSFL and substrate-specific MOs play a role in the biotransformation of AFB1 as well as in conversion of AFB1 into aflatoxin P1 and aflatoxicol, respectively. In contrast, HFL did not seem to contribute to AFB1 degradation. The obtained results contribute to our understanding of aflatoxin metabolism by different insect species. This information is crucial for assessing the safety of feeding fly larvae with feed substrates contaminated with AFB1 with the purpose of subsequent use as animal feed.

Comprehensive Insights into Ochratoxin A: Occurrence, Analysis, and Control Strategies

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a toxic mycotoxin produced by some mold species from genera Penicillium and Aspergillus. OTA has been detected in cereals, cereal-derived products, dried fruits, wine, grape juice, beer, tea, coffee, cocoa, nuts, spices, licorice, processed meat, cheese, and other foods. OTA can induce a wide range of health effects attributable to its toxicological properties, including teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, carcinogenicity, genotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity. OTA is not only toxic to humans but also harmful to livestock like cows, goats, and poultry. This is why the European Union and various countries regulate the maximum permitted levels of OTA in foods. This review intends to summarize all the main aspects concerning OTA, starting from the chemical structure and fungi that produce it, its presence in food, its toxicity, and methods of analysis, as well as control strategies, including both fungal development and methods of inactivation of the molecule. Finally, the review provides some ideas for future approaches aimed at reducing the OTA levels in foods.

Enzymatic Degradation of Deoxynivalenol with the Engineered Detoxification Enzyme Fhb7

In the era of global climate change, the increasingly severe Fusarium head blight (FHB) and deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination have caused economic losses and brought food and feed safety concerns. Recently, an FHB resistance gene Fhb7 coding a glutathione-S transferase (GST) to degrade DON by opening the critical toxic epoxide moiety was identified and opened a new window for wheat breeding and DON detoxification. However, the poor stability of Fhb7 and the elusiveness of the catalytic mechanism hinder its practical application. Herein, we report the first structure of Fhb7 at 2.41 Å and reveal a unique catalytic mechanism of epoxide opening transformation in GST family proteins. Furthermore, variants V29P and M10 showed that 5.5-fold and 266.7-fold longer half-life time than wild-type, respectively, were identified. These variants offer broad substrate scope, and the engineered biosafe Bacillus subtilis overexpressing the variants shows excellent DON degradation performance, exhibiting potential at bacterium engineering to achieve DON detoxification in the feed and biomedicine industry. This work provides a profound mechanistic insight into the enzymatic activities of Fhb7 and paves the way for further utilizing Fhb7-related enzymes in crop breeding and DON detoxification by synthetic biology.

A Hydrolase Produced by Rhodococcus erythropolis HQ Is Responsible for the Detoxification of Zearalenone

Zearalenone (ZEN), an estrogenic mycotoxin, is one of the prevalent contaminants found in food and feed, posing risks to human and animal health. In this study, we isolated a ZEN-degrading strain from soil and identified it as Rhodococcus erythropolis HQ. Analysis of degradation products clarified the mechanism by which R. erythropolis HQ degrades ZEN. The gene zenR responsible for degrading ZEN was identified from strain HQ, in which zenR is the key gene for R. erythropolis HQ to degrade ZEN, and its expression product is a hydrolase named ZenR. ZenR shared 58% sequence identity with the hydrolase ZenH from Aeromicrobium sp. HA, but their enzymatic properties were significantly different. ZenR exhibited maximal enzymatic activity at pH 8.0-9.0 and 55 °C, with a Michaelis constant of 21.14 μM, and its enzymatic activity is 2.8 times that of ZenH. The catalytic triad was identified as S132-D157-H307 via molecular docking and site-directed mutagenesis. Furthermore, the fermentation broth of recombinant Bacillus containing ZenR can be effectively applied to liquefied corn samples, with the residual amount of ZEN decreased to 0.21 μg/g, resulting in a remarkable ZEN removal rate of 93%. Thus, ZenR may serve as a new template for the modification of ZEN hydrolases and a new resource for the industrial application of biological detoxification. Consequently, ZenR could potentially be regarded as a novel blueprint for modifying ZEN hydrolases and as a fresh resource for the industrial implementation of biological detoxification.

Strategies to control mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination by nano-semiconductor in food and agro-food: a review

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites generated from toxigenic fungi in the contaminated food and agro-food, which have been regarded as a serious threat to the food safety and human health. Therefore, the control of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contamination is of great significance and has attracted the increasing attention of researchers. As we know, nano-semiconductors have many unique properties such as large surface area, structural stability, good biocompatibility, excellent photoelectrical properties, and low cost, which have been developed and applied in many research fields. Recently, nano-semiconductors have also been promisingly applied in mitigating or controlling mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi contaminations in food and agro-food. In this review, the type, occurrence, and toxicity of main mycotoxins in food and agro-food were introduced. Then, a variety of strategies to mitigate the mycotoxin contamination based on nano-semiconductors involving mycotoxins detection, inhibition of toxigenic fungi, and mycotoxins degradation were summarized. Finally, the outlook, opportunities, and challenges have prospected in the future for the mitigation of mycotoxins and toxigenic fungi based on nano-semiconductors.

Research advances in the degradation of aflatoxin by lactic acid bacteria

Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites that often contaminate food and animal feed, causing huge economic losses and serious health hazards. Aflatoxin contamination has become a major concern worldwide. Biological methods have been used to reduce aflatoxins in food and feed by inhibiting toxin production and detoxification. Among biological methods, lactic acid bacteria are of significant interest because of their safety, efficiency, and environmental friendliness. This study aimed to review the mechanisms by which lactic acid bacteria degrade aflatoxins and the factors that influence their degradation efficiency, including the action of the lactic acid bacteria themselves (cell wall adsorption) and the antifungal metabolites produced by the lactic acid bacteria. The current applications of lactic acid bacteria to food and feed were also reviewed. This comprehensive analysis provided insight into the binding mechanisms between lactic acid bacteria and aflatoxins, facilitating the practical applications of lactic acid bacteria to food and agriculture.

Partner-assisted artificial selection of a secondary function for efficient bioremediation

Microbial enzymes can address diverse challenges such as degradation of toxins. However, if the function of interest does not confer a sufficient fitness effect on the producer, the enzymatic function cannot be improved in the host cells by a conventional selection scheme. To overcome this limitation, we propose an alternative scheme, termed "partner-assisted artificial selection" (PAAS), wherein the population of enzyme producers is assisted by function-dependent feedback from an accessory population. Simulations investigating the efficiency of toxin degradation reveal that this strategy supports selection of improved degradation performance, which is robust to stochasticity in the model parameters. We observe that conventional considerations still apply in PAAS: more restrictive bottlenecks lead to stronger selection but add uncertainty. Overall, we offer a guideline for successful implementation of PAAS and highlight its potentials and limitations.

Detoxification impacts of dietary probiotic and prebiotic supplements against aflatoxins: an updated knowledge

The widespread prevalence of food pollutants seriously threatens human and animal health. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites primarily formed by toxigenic fungal genera, including Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Alternaria, demonstrating one of the principal pollutants in diets or feed products. Mycotoxin contamination in food can harm health, including stunted development, immune system suppression, infertility, vomiting, and gastrointestinal and cancerous conditions. These effects can occur both acutely and chronically. The complex food chain can be contaminated with mycotoxins at any point, including during harvest, industrial processing, shipping, or storage, putting the food sector under societal pressure owing to the waste generated by infected goods. One of the biological controls of mycotoxin is provided by probiotics and prebiotics, controlled as foods and dietary supplements made of bacteria or yeast. Aflatoxin's bioavailability and gastrointestinal absorption can be reduced using various probiotics and prebiotics.

Destruction of Mycotoxins in Poultry Waste under Anaerobic Conditions within Methanogenesis Catalyzed by Artificial Microbial Consortia

To reduce the toxicity of modern feeds polluted by mycotoxins, various sorbents are added to them when feeding animals. A part of the mycotoxins is excreted from the body of animals with these sorbents and remains in the manure. As a result, bulk animal wastes containing mixtures of mycotoxins are formed. It is known that it is partially possible to decrease the initial concentration of mycotoxins in the process of anaerobic digestion (AD) of contaminated methanogenic substrates. The aim of this review was to analyze the recent results in destruction of mycotoxins under the action of enzymes present in cells of anaerobic consortia catalyzing methanogenesis of wastes. The possible improvement of the functioning of the anaerobic artificial consortia during detoxification of mycotoxins in the bird droppings is discussed. Particular attention was paid to the possibility of effective functioning of microbial enzymes that catalyze the detoxification of mycotoxins, both at the stage of preparation of poultry manure for methanogenesis and directly in the anaerobic process itself. The sorbents with mycotoxins which appeared in the poultry wastes composed one of the topics of interest in this review. The preliminary alkaline treatment of poultry excreta before processing in AD was considered from the standpoint of effectively reducing the concentrations of mycotoxins in the waste.

Molecular Docking and In Vitro Studies of Ochratoxin A (OTA) Biodetoxification Testing Three Endopeptidases

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is considered one of the main mycotoxins responsible for health problems and considerable economic losses in the feed industry. The aim was to study OTA's detoxifying potential of commercial protease enzymes: (i) Ananas comosus bromelain cysteine-protease, (ii) bovine trypsin serine-protease and (iii) Bacillus subtilis neutral metalloendopeptidase. In silico studies were performed with reference ligands and T-2 toxin as control, and in vitro experiments. In silico study results showed that tested toxins interacted near the catalytic triad, similar to how the reference ligands behave in all tested proteases. Likewise, based on the proximity of the amino acids in the most stable poses, the chemical reaction mechanisms for the transformation of OTA were proposed. In vitro experiments showed that while bromelain reduced OTA's concentration in 7.64% at pH 4.6; trypsin at 10.69% and the neutral metalloendopeptidase in 8.2%, 14.44%, 45.26% at pH 4.6, 5 and 7, respectively (p < 0.05). The less harmful α-ochratoxin was confirmed with trypsin and the metalloendopeptidase. This study is the first attempt to demonstrate that: (i) bromelain and trypsin can hydrolyse OTA in acidic pH conditions with low efficiency and (ii) the metalloendopeptidase was an effective OTA bio-detoxifier. This study confirmed α-ochratoxin as a final product of the enzymatic reactions in real-time practical information on OTA degradation rate, since in vitro experiments simulated the time that food spends in poultry intestines, as well as their natural pH and temperature conditions.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-based optical biosensors for food safety applications: Ochratoxin-A detection, as case study

Global population growth tremendously impacts the global food industry, endangering food safety and quality. Mycotoxins, particularly Ochratoxin-A (OTA), emerge as a food chain production threat, since it is produced by fungus that contaminates different food species and products. Beyond this, OTA exhibits a possible human toxicological risk that can lead to carcinogenic and neurological diseases. A selective, sensitive, and reliable OTA biodetection approach is essential to ensure food safety. Current detection approaches rely on accurate and time-consuming laboratory techniques performed at the end of the food production process, or lateral-flow technologies that are rapid and on-site, but do not provide quantitative and precise OTA concentration measurements. Nanoengineered optical biosensors arise as an avant-garde solution, providing high sensing performance, and a fast and accurate OTA biodetection screening, which is attractive for the industrial market. This review core presents and discusses the recent advancements in optical OTA biosensing, considering engineered nanomaterials, optical transduction principle and biorecognition methodologies. Finally, the major challenges and future trends are discussed, and current patented OTA optical biosensors are emphasized for a particular promising detection method.

Genetic Regulation of Mycotoxin Biosynthesis

Mycotoxin contamination in food poses health hazards to humans. Current methods of controlling mycotoxins still have limitations and more effective approaches are needed. During the past decades of years, variable environmental factors have been tested for their influence on mycotoxin production leading to elucidation of a complex regulatory network involved in mycotoxin biosynthesis. These regulators are putative targets for screening molecules that could inhibit mycotoxin synthesis. Here, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of hierarchical regulators, including pathway-specific regulators, global regulators and epigenetic regulators, on the production of the most critical mycotoxins (aflatoxins, patulin, citrinin, trichothecenes and fumonisins). Future studies on regulation of mycotoxins will provide valuable knowledge for exploring novel methods to inhibit mycotoxin biosynthesis in a more efficient way.

Transcriptome analysis reveals gene expression changes of the basidiomycetous yeast Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans in response to ochratoxin A exposure

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the most common and deleterious mycotoxins found in food and feedstuffs worldwide; however, Apiotrichum mycotoxinivorans can detoxify OTA. Our results show that A. mycotoxinivorans GUM1709 efficiently degraded OTA, but it caused the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species. The main aim of this study was to identify potential OTA-detoxifying enzymes and to explore the effects of OTA on A. mycotoxinivorans GMU1709. RNA-seq data revealed that 1643 and 1980 genes were significantly upregulated and downregulated, respectively, after OTA exposure. Functional enrichment analyses indicated that OTA exposure enhanced defense capability, protein transport, endocytosis, and energy metabolism; caused ribosomal stress; suppressed DNA replication and transcription; inhibited cell growth and division; and promoted cell death. The integration of secretome, gene expression, and molecular docking analyses revealed that two carboxypeptidase homologues (members of the metallocarboxypeptidase family) were most likely responsible for the detoxification of both extracellular and intracellular OTA. Superoxide dismutase and catalase were the main genes activated in response to oxidative stress. In addition, analysis of key genes associated with cell division and apoptosis showed that OTA exposure inhibited mitosis and promoted cell death. This study revealed the possible OTA response and detoxification mechanisms in A. mycotoxinivorans.

Toxicity and preventive approaches of Fusarium derived mycotoxins using lactic acid bacteria: state of the art

Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is a serious food safety issue and causes acute and chronic diseases in humans and livestock. Climatic and agronomic changes helps in the proliferation of fungal growth and mycotoxin production in food commodities. Mycotoxin contamination has attracted global attention due to its wide range of toxicity to humans and animals. However, physical and chemical management approaches in practice are unsafe for well-being due to their health-hazardous nature. Various antibiotics and preservatives are in use to reduce the microbial load and improve the shelf life of food products. In addition, the use of antibiotic growth promotors in livestock production may increase the risk of antimicrobial resistance, which is a global health concern. Due to their many uses, probiotics are helpful microbes that have a significant impact on food and nutrition. Furthermore, the probiotic potential of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is employed in various food and feed preparations to neutralize mycotoxins, antimicrobial activities, balance the gut microbiome, and various immunomodulatory activities in both humans and livestock. In addition, LAB produces various antimicrobials, flavouring agents, peptides, and proteins linked to various food and health care applications. The LAB-based processes for mycotoxin management are more effective, eco-friendly, and low-cost than physical and chemical approaches. The toxicity, novel preventive measures, binding nature, and molecular mechanisms of mycotoxins' detoxification using LAB have been highlighted in this review.

Fungal Species and Multi-Mycotoxin Associated with Post-Harvest Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) Grain in Eastern Ethiopia

Sorghum is the main staple food crop in developing countries, including Ethiopia. However, sorghum grain quantity and quality are affected by contaminating fungi both under field and post-harvest stage. The aim of the current study was to assessed fungal species and multi-mycotoxins associated with sorghum grain in post-harvest samples collected from eastern Ethiopia. Fungal genera of Aspergillus, Alternaria, Bipolaris, Fusarium, Mucor, Penicillium, and Rhizoctonia were recovered in the infected grain. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (LC-MS/MS) was used for quantification of multiple mycotoxins/fungal metabolites. Overall, 94 metabolites were detected and grouped into eight categories. All metabolites were detected either in one or more samples. Among major mycotoxins and derivatives, deoxynivalenol (137 μg/kg), zearalenone (121 μg/kg), ochratoxin A (115 μg/kg), and fumonisin B₁ (112 μg/kg) were detected with maximum concentrations, while aflatoxin B₁ had relatively lower concentrations (23.6 μg/kg). Different emerging mycotoxins were also detected, with tenuazonic acid (1515 μg/kg) occurring at the maximum concentration among Alternaria metabolites. Fusaric acid (2786 μg/kg) from Fusarium metabolites and kojic acid (4584 μg/kg) were detected with the maximum concentration among Fusarium and Aspergillus metabolites, respectively. Unspecific metabolites were recognized with neoechinulin A (1996 μg/kg) at the maximum concentration, followed by cyclo (L-Pro-L-Tyr) (574 μg/kg) and cyclo (L-Pro-L-Val) (410 μg/kg). Moreover, metabolites form other fungal genera and bacterial metabolites were also detected at varying levels. Apparently, the study revealed that sorghum grains collected across those districts were significantly contaminated with co-occurrences of several mycotoxins. Farmers should be the main target groups to be trained on the improved management of sorghum production.

Protective effects of dietary Kefir against aflatoxin B1-induced hepatotoxicity in Nile tilapia fish, Oreochromis niloticus

The effect of dietary Kefir supplementation on the biometric, biochemical, and histological parameters of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) exposed to aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, 200 µg/kg diet) contamination was studied. The yeasts were dominant in Kefir followed by lactic and acetic acid bacteria. The Kefir showed relatively interesting antioxidant potential in the DPPH• (IC50 = 0.9 ± 0.02 mg/ml) and ABTS•+ (IC50 = 2.2 ± 0.03 mg/ml) scavenging activities, Fe3+-reducing power (EC0.5 = 1.2 ± 0.01 mg/ml), and β-carotene bleaching assay (IC50 = 3.3 ± 0.02 mg/ml). Three hundred and sixty Nile tilapia weighing 23 ± 5 g were divided into four groups (30 fish/group with 3 replicates), and fed with diets containing Kefir (D2), AFB1 (D3), and Kefir+AFB1 (D4) for 4 weeks, whereas D1 was kept as control group where fish were fed with basal diet. The Kefir supplementation in D4 group significantly increased (p < .05) the percent weight gain as compared to D3 group. Moreover, Kefir improved the antioxidant enzymes in the liver, such as catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activities, that significantly increased (p < .05) by 2-, 3-, and 1.5-folds, respectively, as compared to D3 group. The Kefir treatment significantly decreased (p < .05) the liver malonaldehyde content by ~50% as compared to D3 group. Histopathological analysis revealed the hepatoprotective effects of Kefir by showing normal liver histological architecture in D4 group, as compared to degenerative changes observed in D3 group. These results suggest that Kefir could be considered as a potential probiotic in Nile tilapia feed to mitigate the AFB1 harmful effects.

Metabolic Disruption by Naturally Occurring Mycotoxins in Circulation: A Focus on Vascular and Bone Homeostasis Dysfunction

Naturally occurring food/feed contaminants have become a significant global issue due to animal and human health implications. Despite risk assessments and legislation setpoints on the mycotoxins' levels, exposure to lower amounts occurs, and it might affect cell homeostasis. However, the inflammatory consequences of this possible everyday exposure to toxins on the vascular microenvironment and arterial dysfunction are unexplored in detail. Circulation is the most accessible path for food-borne toxins, and the consequent metabolic and immune shifts affect systemic health, both on vascular apparatus and bone homeostasis. Their oxidative nature makes mycotoxins a plausible underlying source of low-level toxicity in the bone marrow microenvironment and arterial dysfunction. Mycotoxins could also influence the function of cardiomyocytes with possible injury to the heart. Co-occurrence of mycotoxins can modulate the metabolic pathways favoring osteoblast dysfunction and bone health losses. This review provides a novel insight into understanding the complex events of coexposure to mixed (low levels) mycotoxicosis and subsequent metabolic/immune disruptions contributing to chronic alterations in circulation.

The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria

Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.

Does probiotic Kefir reduce dyslipidemia, hematological disorders and oxidative stress induced by zearalenone toxicity in wistar rats?

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a toxic metabolite of the genus Fusarium, which causes hepatotoxicity and induces oxidative stress. Kefir is an important probiotic dairy-product showing important in vitro antioxidant potential. In this study, the effect of Kefir supplementation to mitigate ZEA toxicity in rats was investigated. Animals were divided into four groups of five rats each, which received sterile milk (200 μL/day) during the first week. Then, they were switched to Kefir (200 μL/day), ZEA (40 mg/kg b. w./day) and Kefir + ZEA for the second week. Hematological and biochemical parameters, as well as liver histological analysis were determined. Kefir administration prevented the changes occurred in the count of all blood cells, and improved the antioxidant enzymes in the liver, such as catalase, glutathione peroxidase and superoxide dismutase activities that increased by 6, 4.5 and 1.3 folds, respectively, compared to ZEA group. Interestingly, the concurrent regimen Kefir + ZEA removed ZEA residues in the serum and liver. Furthermore, the Kefir + ZEA group showed a reduction in the levels of bilirubin, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase and hepatic malonaldehyde by ∼82, 54, 66, 50 and 36%, respectively, compared to the ZEA group. The histopathological analysis showed a normal liver histological architecture in Kefir + ZEA group, while degenerative changes were observed in ZEA group. These results suggest that Kefir as probiotic consortium may have a hepatoprotective effect against ZEA poisoning.

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Zearalenone caused oxidative stress and liver damage in rats.

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Zearalenone induced disruption of hematological and biochemical parameters.

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Kefir improved the antioxidant defense systems in rats subjected to Zearalenone.

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Kefir prevented Zearalenone-induced hepatotoxicity in rats.

Role of Lactic Acid Bacteria in Food Preservation and Safety

Fermentation of various food stuffs by lactic acid bacteria is one of the oldest forms of food biopreservation. Bacterial antagonism has been recognized for over a century, but in recent years, this phenomenon has received more scientific attention, particularly in the use of various strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Certain strains of LAB demonstrated antimicrobial activity against foodborne pathogens, including bacteria, yeast and filamentous fungi. Furthermore, in recent years, many authors proved that lactic acid bacteria have the ability to neutralize mycotoxin produced by the last group. Antimicrobial activity of lactic acid bacteria is mainly based on the production of metabolites such as lactic acid, organic acids, hydroperoxide and bacteriocins. In addition, some research suggests other mechanisms of antimicrobial activity of LAB against pathogens as well as their toxic metabolites. These properties are very important because of the future possibility to exchange chemical and physical methods of preservation with a biological method based on the lactic acid bacteria and their metabolites. Biopreservation is defined as the extension of shelf life and the increase in food safety by use of controlled microorganisms or their metabolites. This biological method may determine the alternative for the usage of chemical preservatives. In this study, the possibilities of the use of lactic acid bacteria against foodborne pathogens is provided. Our aim is to yield knowledge about lactic acid fermentation and the activity of lactic acid bacteria against pathogenic microorganisms. In addition, we would like to introduce actual information about health aspects associated with the consumption of fermented products, including probiotics.

Detoxification approaches of mycotoxins: by microorganisms, biofilms and enzymes

Mycotoxins are generally found in food, feed, dairy products, and beverages, subsequently presenting serious human and animal health problems. Not surprisingly, mycotoxin contamination has been a worldwide concern for many research studies. In this regard, many biological, chemical, and physical approaches were investigated to reduce and/or remove contamination from food and feed products. Biological detoxification processes seem to be the most promising approaches for mycotoxins removal from food. The current review details the newest progress in biological detoxification (adsorption and metabolization) through microorganisms, their biofilms, and enzymatic degradation, finally describing the detoxification mechanism of many mycotoxins by some microorganisms. This review also reports the possible usage of microorganisms as mycotoxins’ binders in various food commodities, which may help produce mycotoxins-free food and feed.

Ochratoxin A: Occurrence and recent advances in detoxification

Ochratoxin A (OTA), one of the most important mycotoxins, is mainly produced by fungi in the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium, and commonly found in food and agricultural products. In addition to causing significant economic losses, the occurrence of OTA in foods poses a serious threat to human health. Therefore, it is very important to develop approaches to control or detoxify OTA contamination and thus ensure food safety. In this paper, we review the source and occurrence of OTA in food and agricultural products and the latest achievements in the removal and detoxification of OTA using physical, chemical, and biological methods, with specific attention to influencing factors and mechanisms related to the biodetoxification of OTA. Moreover, the advantages and disadvantages of these methods and their potential application prospect were also discussed.

The control of fungi and mycotoxins by food active packaging: a review

Conventionally used petrochemical-based plastics are poorly degradable and cause severe environmental pollution. Alternatively, biopolymers (e.g., polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and their blends) are biodegradable and environment-friendly, and thus their use in packaging technologies has been on the rise. Spoilage of food by mycotoxigenic fungi poses a severe threat to human and animal health. Hence, because of the adverse effects of synthetic preservatives, active packaging as an effective technique for controlling and decontaminating fungi and related mycotoxins has attracted considerable interest. The current review aims to provide an overview of the prevention of fungi and mycotoxins through active packaging. The impact of different additives on the antifungal and anti-mycotoxigenic functionality of packaging incorporating active films/coatings is also investigated. In addition, active packaging applications to control and decontaminate common fungi and mycotoxins in bakery products, cereal grains, fruits, nuts, and dairy products are also introduced. The results of recent studies have confirmed that biopolymer films and coatings incorporating antimicrobial agents provide great potential for controlling common fungi and mycotoxins and enhancing food quality and safety.

Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins: Current Status and Future Advances

Mycotoxins are highly toxic metabolites produced by fungi that pose a huge threat to human and animal health. Contamination of food and feed with mycotoxins is a worldwide issue, which leads to huge financial losses, annually. Decades of research have developed various approaches to degrade mycotoxins, among which the biological methods have been proved to have great potential and advantages. This review provides an overview on the important advances in the biological removal of mycotoxins over the last decade. Here, we provided further insight into the chemical structures and the toxicity of the main mycotoxins. The innovative strategies including mycotoxin degradation by novel probiotics are summarized in an in-depth discussion on potentialities and limitations. We prospected the promising future for the development of multifunctional approaches using recombinant enzymes and microbial consortia for the simultaneous removal of multiple mycotoxins.

Mycotoxins in khadi, A Traditional Non-Cereal Based Alcoholic Beverage of Botswana

Mycotoxin contamination is a major food safety drawback towards the commercialization of food products. The commercialization of khadi, a popular fermented alcoholic beverage of Botswana necessitates the investigation of the presence of mycotoxins. Khadi brewing involves the uncontrolled and unstandardized spontaneous fermentation of sun-dried Grewia flava fruits, which could be a source of mycotoxin-producing filamentous fungi (molds). This study sought to investigate the presence of mycotoxins producing fungi and mycotoxins in 18 samples of khadi collected in Central and Northern Botswana. Periconia thailandica, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aspergillus ochraceus, Phoma eupyrena, Setosphaeria turcica, Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Chaetomium longiciliata, and Flavodon ambrosius were identified in 10 out of 18 khadi samples. Mycotoxins were detected using the Myco-10 Randox Evidence Investigator biochip kit and confirmed using a UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. Mycotoxins such as paxilline, ochratoxin A, ergot alkaloids, aflatoxin G1/G2, and zearalenone were detected using the Myco-10 Randox Evidence Investigator biochip kit. The Myco-10 results revealed that the mycotoxins in the khadi samples were lower than the regulatory limits set by FDA or European Commission. Confirmation of results using an UPLC-ESI-MS/MS system involved confirming selected mycotoxins (AFB1, DON. ZEA, FB1, FB2, FB3, NIV, and OTA) from selected khadi samples (Palapye 1, Palapye 2, Letlhakane 2, Maun 3, Mmashoro 3, and Tonota 3). The UPLC results demonstrated that the aforementioned mycotoxins in the selected khadi samples were below the detection thresholds. The study shows that while fungal isolates were present, there is no to minimal danger/risk of exposure to toxic mycotoxins after consumption of khadi. Towards commercialization endeavors, the production process would necessitate minimal mycotoxin monitoring and product preservation but no detoxifying steps.

Bio-control on the contamination of Ochratoxin A in food: Current research and future prospects

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary metabolite of several fungi and widely exists in various species of foods. The establishment of effective methods for OTA reduction is a key measure to ensure food processing and human health. This article reviews the current research of OTA reduction by biological approaches, summarizes the characteristics and efficiency of them, and evaluates the transformation pathways and metabolites safety of each degradation technology. The shortcomings of various methods are pointed out and future prospects are also proposed. Biological methods are the most promising approaches for OTA control. The defect of them is the long processing time and the growth of microbial cells may affect the product quality. Therefore, the control of OTA contamination should be conducted according to the food processing and their product types. Besides, it is significant for the exploitation of new strains, enzyme and novel adsorbents.

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The application of physical and chemical methods has been restricted.

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Existing biological methods can effectively detoxify OTA.

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OTA reduction systems should be established for different food.

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The exploitation of novel equipment, enzyme and adsorbents is essential.

Mycotoxins—Prevention, Detection, Impact on Animal Health

Mycotoxins are defined as secondary metabolites of some species of mold fungi. They are present in many foods consumed by animals. Moreover, they most often contaminate products of plant and animal origin. Fungi of genera Fusarium, Aspergillus, and Penicillum are most often responsible for the production of mycotoxins. They release toxic compounds that, when properly accumulated, can affect many aspects of breeding, such as reproduction and immunity, as well as the overall liver detoxification performance of animals. Mycotoxins, which are chemical compounds, are extremely difficult to remove due to their natural resistance to mechanical, thermal, and chemical factors. Modern methods of analysis allow the detection of the presence of mycotoxins and determine the level of contamination with them, both in raw materials and in foods. Various food processes that can affect mycotoxins include cleaning, grinding, brewing, cooking, baking, frying, flaking, and extrusion. Most feeding processes have a variable effect on mycotoxins, with those that use high temperatures having the greatest influence. Unfortunately, all these processes significantly reduce mycotoxin amounts, but they do not completely eliminate them. This article presents the risks associated with the presence of mycotoxins in foods and the methods of their detection and prevention.

Debaryomyces hansenii Is a Real Tool to Improve a Diversity of Characteristics in Sausages and Dry-Meat Products

Debaryomyces hansenii yeast represents a promising target for basic and applied biotechnological research It is known that D. hansenii is abundant in sausages and dry-meat products, but information regarding its contribution to their characteristics is blurry and contradictory. The main goal in this review was to define the biological contribution of D. hansenii to the final features of these products. Depending on multiple factors, D. hansenii may affect diverse physicochemical characteristics of meat products. However, there is general agreement about the significant generation of volatile and aromatic compounds caused by the metabolic activities of this yeast, which consequently provide a tendency for improved consumer acceptance. We also summarize current evidence highlighting that it is not possible to predict what the results would be after the inoculation of a meat product with a selected D. hansenii strain without a pivotal previous study. The use of D. hansenii as a biocontrol agent and to manufacture new meat products by decreasing preservatives are examples of exploring research lines that will complement current knowledge and contribute to prepare new and more ecological products.

Reaping the Benefits of Microorganisms in Cropping Systems: Is the Regulatory Policy Adequate?

Within food plant cropping systems, microorganisms provide vital functions and ecosystem services, such as biological pest and disease control, promotion of plant growth and crop quality, and biodegradation of organic matter and pollutants. The beneficial effects of microorganisms can be achieved and/or enhanced by agricultural management measures that target the resident microbial biodiversity or by augmentation with domesticated and propagated microbial strains. This study presents a critical review of the current legislation and regulatory policies pertaining to the utilization of plant-beneficial microorganisms in the European Union (EU). For augmentative approaches, the nature of the intended effect and the product claim determine how a microbiological product is categorized and regulated, and pre-market authorization may be mandatory. Typically, microbial products have been incorporated into frameworks that were designed for evaluating non-living substances, and are therefore not well suited to the specific properties of live microorganisms. We suggest that regulatory harmonization across the sector could stimulate technical development and facilitate implementation of crop management methods employing microorganisms. Possible scenarios for regulatory reform in the longer term are discussed, but more investigation into their feasibility is needed. The findings of this study should serve as a catalyst for more efficient future use of plant-beneficial microorganisms, to the benefit of agriculture as well as the environment.

Adsorption Mechanism of Patulin from Apple Juice by Inactivated Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Kefir Grains

In the food industry, microbiological safety is a major concern. Mycotoxin patulin represents a potential health hazard, as it is heat-resistant and may develop at any stage during the food chain, especially in apple-based products, leading to severe effects on human health, poor quality products, and profit reductions. The target of the study was to identify and characterize an excellent adsorbent to remove patulin from apple juice efficiently and to assess its adsorption mechanism. To prevent juice fermentation and/or contamination, autoclaving was involved to inactivate bacteria before the adsorption process. The HPLC (high-performance liquid chromatography) outcome proved that all isolated strains from kefir grains could reduce patulin from apple juice. A high removal of 93% was found for juice having a 4.6 pH, 15° Brix, and patulin concentration of 100 μg/L by Lactobacillus kefiranofacien, named JKSP109, which was morphologically the smoothest and biggest of all isolates in terms of cell wall volume and surface area characterized by SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) and TEM (transmission electron microscopy). C=O, OH, C–H, and N–O were the main functional groups engaged in patulin adsorption indicated by FTIR (Fourier transform–infrared). E-nose (electronic nose) was performed to evaluate the aroma quality of the juices. PCA (Principal component analysis) results showed that no significant changes occurred between control and treated juice.

Enzymatic Degradation of Multiple Major Mycotoxins by Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidase from Bacillus subtilis

The co-occurrence of multiple mycotoxins, including aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), zearalenone (ZEN) and deoxynivalenol (DON), widely exists in cereal-based animal feed and food. At present, most reported mycotoxins degrading enzymes target only a certain type of mycotoxins. Therefore, it is of great significance for mining enzymes involved in the simultaneous degradation of different types of mycotoxins. In this study, a dye-decolorizing peroxidase-encoding gene BsDyP from Bacillus subtilis SCK6 was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21/pG-Tf2. The purified recombinant BsDyP was capable of oxidizing various substrates, including lignin phenolic model compounds 2,6-dimethylphenol and guaiacol, the substrate 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid), anthraquinone dye reactive blue 19 and azo dye reactive black 5, as well as Mn²⁺. In addition, BsDyP could efficiently degrade different types of mycotoxins, including AFB₁, ZEN and DON, in presence of Mn²⁺. More important, the toxicities of their corresponding enzymatic degradation products AFB₁-diol, 15-OH-ZEN and C₁₅H₁₈O₈ were significantly lower than AFB₁, ZEN and DON. In summary, these results proved that BsDyP was a promising candidate for the simultaneous degradation of multiple mycotoxins in animal feed and food.

Biocontrol Agents: Toolbox for the Screening of Weapons against Mycotoxigenic Fusarium

The aim of this study was to develop a set of experiments to screen and decipher the mechanisms of biocontrol agents (BCAs), isolated from commercial formulation, against two major mycotoxigenic fungi in cereals, Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium verticillioides. These two phytopathogens produce mycotoxins harmful to human and animal health and are responsible for the massive use of pesticides, for the protection of cereals. It is therefore essential to better understand the mechanisms of action of alternative control strategies such as the use of BCAs in order to optimize their applications. The early and late stages of interaction between BCAs and pathogens were investigated from germination of spores to the effects on perithecia (survival form of pathogen). The analysis of antagonist activities of BCAs revealed different strategies of biocontrol where chronological, process combination and specialization aspects of interactions are discussed. Streptomyces griseoviridis main strategy is based on antibiosis with the secretion of several compounds with anti-fungal and anti-germination activity, but also a mixture of hydrolytic enzymes to attack pathogens, which compensates for an important deficit in terms of spatial colonization capacity. It has good abilities in terms of nutritional competition. Trichoderma asperellum is capable of activating a very wide range of defenses and attacks combining the synthesis of various antifungal compounds (metabolite, enzymes, VOCs), with different targets (spores, mycelium, mycotoxins), and direct action by mycoparasitism and mycophagy. Concerning Pythium oligandrum, its efficiency is mainly due to its strong capacity to colonize the environment, with a direct action via microbial predation, stimulation of its reproduction at the contact of pathogens and the reduction of perithecia formation.

Aflatoxins: History, Significant Milestones, Recent Data on Their Toxicity and Ways to Mitigation

In the early 1960s the discovery of aflatoxins began when a total of 100,000 turkey poults died by hitherto unknown turkey "X" disease in England. The disease was associated with Brazilian groundnut meal affected by Aspergillus flavus. The toxin was named Aspergillus flavus toxin-aflatoxin. From the point of view of agriculture, aflatoxins show the utmost importance. Until now, a total of 20 aflatoxins have been described, with B1, B2, G1, and G2 aflatoxins being the most significant. Contamination by aflatoxins is a global health problem. Aflatoxins pose acutely toxic, teratogenic, immunosuppressive, carcinogenic, and teratogenic effects. Besides food insecurity and human health, aflatoxins affect humanity at different levels, such as social, economical, and political. Great emphasis is placed on aflatoxin mitigation using biocontrol methods. Thus, this review is focused on aflatoxins in terms of historical development, the principal milestones of aflatoxin research, and recent data on their toxicity and different ways of mitigation.

Induction of anti-Zearalenone immune response with mimotopes identified from a phage display peptide library

Zearalenone (ZEN), a type of non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin, is mainly produced by several species of Fusarium molds. It is ubiquitous in contaminated grains and grain products all over the world, posing a serious threat to animal and human health. This study aims to screen the mimotopes of ZEN from a phage display random 12-mer peptide library and explore their immunogenicity. A monoclonal antibody (mAb) against ZEN was employed as the target for mimotope selection from a phage display random peptide library. After four rounds of panning, six mimotopes that could specifically bind to ZEN mAb were obtained. In order to explore the immunogenicity of these mimotopes, Balb/c mice were immunized with phages Z8, Z21, Z35, Z8:Z21:Z35(1:1:1) and the conjugate of ZEN-bovine serum albumin (ZEN-BSA), respectively. The titers of antibodies in the mice immunized with mimotopes were 1:3200 (Z8), 1:3200 (Z21), 1:6400 (Z35), 1:6400 (1:1:1 mixture of Z8, Z21 and Z35), and the binding between serum antibodies and ZEN-OVA could be blocked by ZEN standards. These results demonstrated that the mimotopes of ZEN could induce specific antibodies against ZEN, suggesting that these displayed peptides were immunogenic.

Effect of Lactic Acid Bacteria Strains on the Growth and Aflatoxin Production Potential of Aspergillus parasiticus, and Their Ability to Bind Aflatoxin B1, Ochratoxin A, and Zearalenone in vitro

The increased consumption of plant-based foods has intensified the concern related to mycotoxin intoxication. This study aimed to investigate the effect of selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains on the growth of Aspergillus parasiticus NRRL 2999 and its production of aflatoxin (AF). The ability of the heat-killed (100°C for 1 h) LAB strains to bind aflatoxin M₁ (AFM₁) in milk and aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN) in potassium phosphate buffer (PPB) was also evaluated in vitro. Ten LAB strains were tested individually, by inoculating them simultaneously with the fungus or after incubation of the fungus for 24 or 48 h at 25°C. Double layer yeast extract sucrose (YES) agar, de Man Rogosa and Sharpe (MRS) agar, and YES broth were incubated for 7 days at 25°C to follow the development of the fungus. Levilactobacillus spp. 3QB398 and Levilactobacillus brevis 2QB422 strains were able to delay the growth of A. parasiticus in YES broth, even when these strains were inoculated 24 h after the fungus. The inhibitory effect of these LAB strains was confirmed by the reduction of fungus colony size, suggesting dominance of LAB by competition (a Lotka-Voltera effect). The production of AFB₁ by A. parasiticus was inhibited when the fungus was inoculated simultaneously with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 3QB361 or L. plantarum 3QB350. No AFB₁ was found when Levilactobacillus spp. 2QB383 was present, even when the LAB was inoculated 48 h after the fungus. In binding studies, seven inactivated LAB strains were able to promote a reduction of at least 50% the level of AFB₁, OTA, and ZEN. This reduction varied depending on the pH of the PPB. In milk, however, only two inactivated LAB strains were able to reduce AFM₁, with a reduction of 33 and 45% for Levilactobacillus spp. 3QB398 (Levilactobacillus spp.) and L. brevis 2QB422, respectively. Nevertheless, these results clearly indicate the potential of using LAB for mycotoxin reduction.

Neuroimmune disruptions from naturally occurring levels of mycotoxins

Substantial pieces of evidence support the potential of exogenous toxins in disrupting neuroimmune homeostasis. It appears that mycotoxins are one of the noticeable sources of naturally occurring substances dysregulating the immune system, which involves the physiology of many organs, such as the central nervous system (CNS). The induction of inflammatory responses in microglial cells and astrocytes, the CNS resident cells with immunological characteristics, could interrupt the hemostasis upon even with low-level exposure to mycotoxins. The inevitable widespread occurrence of a low level of mycotoxins in foods and feed is likely increasing worldwide, predisposing individuals to potential neuroimmunological dysregulations. This paper reviews the current understanding of mycotoxins' neuro-immunotoxic features under low-dose exposure and the possible ways for detoxification and clearance as a perspective.

Mycotoxins Biocontrol Methods for Healthier Crops and Stored Products

Contamination of crops with phytopathogenic genera such as Fusarium, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Penicillium usually results in mycotoxins in the stored crops or the final products (bread, beer, etc.). To reduce the damage and suppress the fungal growth, it is common to add antifungal substances during growth in the field or storage. Many of these antifungal substances are also harmful to human health and the reduction of their concentration would be of immense importance to food safety. Many eminent researchers are seeking a way to reduce the use of synthetic antifungal compounds and to implement more eco-friendly and healthier bioweapons against fungal proliferation and mycotoxin synthesis. This paper aims to address the recent advances in the effectiveness of biological antifungal compounds application against the aforementioned fungal genera and their species to enhance the protection of ecological and environmental systems involved in crop growing (water, soil, air) and to reduce fungicide contamination of food derived from these commodities.

Mycotoxin-contaminated food and feed in Saudi Arabia: review of occurrence and toxicity

Introduction. Mycotoxins are reported to have a considerable impact on the health of consumers. There has been plentiful research into the effects of mycotoxins, fungi, and bacteria on the safety and quality of food and feed. This research paper reviews the literature on mycotoxins. Study objects and methods. The study focused on mycotoxins in food and feed produced in Saudi Arabia. We reviewed literature on the occurrence and health impacts of foodborne mycotoxins. We also studied the presence of mycotoxins in herbs, nuts, cereals, dried fruits and vegetables, infant formulas and baby foods, as well as dairy products. Finally, the paper offers a review of mycotoxin analysis methods. Results and discussion. The findings showed that mycotoxins attract a lot of scientific interest in Saudi Arabia. Certain types of mycotoxins (zearalenone, aflatoxins) and fungi (Aspergillus flavus, Penicillium chrysogenum, and Aspergillus niger) were common in the samples (isolates) of products tested in the Saudi regions. Furthermore, the researchers used different techniques of analysis such as the HPLC method, dilution plate method, thin layer chromatography, total plate count method, and seed-plate method to detect, identify, and isolate mycotoxins. Conclusion. Most importantly, the results showed that mycotoxins have serious health impacts on consumers and most of the contamination cases are caused by improper storage conditions and/or inappropriate handling and harvesting practices.

In Vitro Mechanism Assessment of Zearalenone Removal by Plant-Derived Lactobacillus plantarum BCC 47723

Zearalenone (ZEA) is a harmful secondary fungal metabolite, produced primarily by plant pathogenic fungi mostly belonging to the genus Fusarium. It is involved in reproductive disorders in animals since its structure is similar to the estrogen hormone. This induces precocious pubertal changes, fertility problems, and hyper estrogenic disorders. The main objectives of this study were to evaluate the ZEA removal capacity of plant-derived lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and to investigate the possible components and mechanisms involved in the removal of ZEA by physically and chemically treated plant-derived LAB. The bacterial cells were characterized using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and the analysis of zeta potential, and hydrophobic index. Results revealed that 17 out of 33 plant-derived LAB exhibited ZEA removal from liquid medium. The percentage of removal ranged from 0.5-23% and Lactobacillus plantarum BCC 47723, isolated from wild spider flower pickle (Pag-sian-dorng), exhibited the highest removal. The alteration of proteins on L. plantarum BCC 47723 structure by Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) treatment was positively affected on ZEA removal, whereas that of lipids on ZEA removal was negatively observed. Heat treatment influenced the higher ZEA adsorption. SEM images showed that the morphologies of modified bacterial cells were distinctly deformed and damaged when compared with untreated control. FTIR analysis indicated that the original functional groups, which included amide (C=O, C-N), carboxyl (C=O, C-O, O-H), methylene (C=C), and alcohol (O-H) groups, were not changed after ZEA adsorption. The zeta potential indicated that electrostatic interaction was not involved in the ZEA removal, while hydrophobicity was the main force to interact with ZEA. These findings can conclude that adsorption by hydrophobicity is the main mechanism for ZEA removal of plant-derived L. plantarum BCC 47723. The alteration of bacterial cell structure by heat treatment enhanced the efficiency of L. plantarum BCC 47723 for ZEA reduction. Its activity can be protected by the freeze-drying technique. Hence, plant-derived L. plantarum BCC 47723 can be considered as an organic adsorbent for ZEA reduction in food and feedstuff.

Possibilities for the Biological Control of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed

Seeking useful biological agents for mycotoxin detoxification has achieved success in the last twenty years thanks to the participation of many multidisciplinary teams. We have recently witnessed discoveries in the fields of bacterial genetics (inclusive of next-generation sequencing), protein encoding, and bioinformatics that have helped to shape the latest perception of how microorganisms/mycotoxins/environmental factors intertwine and interact, so the road is opened for new breakthroughs. Analysis of literature data related to the biological control of mycotoxins indicates the ability of yeast, bacteria, fungi and enzymes to degrade or adsorb mycotoxins, which increases the safety and quality of susceptible crops, animal feed and, ultimately, food of animal origin (milk, meat and eggs) by preventing the presence of residues. Microbial detoxification (transformation and adsorption) is becoming a trustworthy strategy that leaves no or less toxic compounds and contributes to food security. This review summarizes the data and highlights the importance and prospects of these methods.

Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in food and feed

Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi growing in food or feed, which can produce toxic effects and seriously threaten the health of humans and animals. Mycotoxins are commonly found in food and feed, and are of significant concern due to their hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and ability to damage the immune and reproductive systems. Traditional physical and chemical detoxification methods to treat mycotoxins in food and feed products have limitations, such as loss of nutrients, reagent residues, and secondary pollution to the environment. Thus, there is an urgent need for new detoxification methods to effectively control mycotoxins and treat mycotoxin pollution. In recent years, microbial detoxification technology has been widely used for the degradation of mycotoxins in food and feed because this approach offers the potential for treatment with high efficiency, low toxicity, and strong specificity, without damage to nutrients. This article reviews the application of microbial detoxification technology for removal of common mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, and Fumonisins, and discusses the development trend of this important technology.