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Henedak NT, El-Abhar HS, Soubh AA, Abdallah DM. NLRP3 Inflammasome: A central player in renal pathologies and nephropathy. Life Sci 2024; 351:122813. [PMID: 38857655 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
The cytoplasmic oligomer NLR Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has been implicated in most inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Here, we highlight the significance of NLRP3 in diverse renal disorders, demonstrating its activation in macrophages and non-immune tubular epithelial and mesangial cells in response to various stimuli. This activation leads to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, contributing to the development of acute kidney injury (AKI), chronic renal injury, or fibrosis. In AKI, NLRP3 inflammasome activation and pyroptotic renal tubular cell death is driven by contrast and chemotherapeutic agents, sepsis, and rhabdomyolysis. Nevertheless, inflammasome is provoked in disorders such as crystal and diabetic nephropathy, obesity-related renal fibrosis, lupus nephritis, and hypertension-induced renal damage that induce chronic kidney injury and/or fibrosis. The mechanisms by which the inflammatory NLRP3/ Apoptosis-associated Speck-like protein containing a Caspase recruitment domain (ASC)/caspase-1/interleukin (IL)-1β & IL-18 pathway can turn on renal fibrosis is also comprehended. This review further outlines the involvement of dopamine and its associated G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), including D1-like (D1, D5) and D2-like (D2-D4) subtypes, in regulating this inflammation-linked renal dysfunction pathway. Hence, we identify D-related receptors as promising targets for renal disease management by inhibiting the functionality of the NLRP3 inflammasome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada T Henedak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ahram Canadian University, 6(th) of October City, Giza, Egypt
| | - Hanan S El-Abhar
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Future University in Egypt, Cairo 11835, Egypt
| | - Ayman A Soubh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ahram Canadian University, 6(th) of October City, Giza, Egypt
| | - Dalaal M Abdallah
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo 11562, Egypt.
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Corona D, Ekser B, Gioco R, Caruso M, Schipa C, Veroux P, Giaquinta A, Granata A, Veroux M. Heme-Oxygenase and Kidney Transplantation: A Potential for Target Therapy? Biomolecules 2020; 10:E840. [PMID: 32486245 PMCID: PMC7355572 DOI: 10.3390/biom10060840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Kidney transplantation is a well-established therapy for patients with end-stage renal disease. While a significant improvement of short-term results has been achieved in the short-term, similar results were not reported in the long-term. Heme-oxygenase (HO) is the rate-limiting enzyme in heme catabolism, converting heme to iron, carbon monoxide, and biliverdin. Heme-oxygenase overexpression may be observed in all phases of transplant processes, including brain death, recipient management, and acute and chronic rejection. HO induction has been proved to provide a significant reduction of inflammatory response and a reduction of ischemia and reperfusion injury in organ transplantation, as well as providing a reduction of incidence of acute rejection. In this review, we will summarize data on HO and kidney transplantation, suggesting possible clinical applications in the near future to improve the long-term outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Corona
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (D.C.); (M.C.)
- Organ Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (P.V.); (A.G.)
| | - Burcin Ekser
- Department of Surgery, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN 46077, USA;
| | - Rossella Gioco
- General Surgery Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (R.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Massimo Caruso
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (D.C.); (M.C.)
| | - Chiara Schipa
- General Surgery Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (R.G.); (C.S.)
| | - Pierfrancesco Veroux
- Organ Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (P.V.); (A.G.)
| | - Alessia Giaquinta
- Organ Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (P.V.); (A.G.)
| | | | - Massimiliano Veroux
- Organ Transplant Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (P.V.); (A.G.)
- General Surgery Unit, University Hospital of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (R.G.); (C.S.)
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Perco P, Mayer G. Endogenous factors and mechanisms of renoprotection and renal repair. Eur J Clin Invest 2018; 48:e12914. [PMID: 29460289 DOI: 10.1111/eci.12914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND An imbalance between renal damaging molecules and nephroprotective factors contributes to the development and progression of kidney diseases. Molecules with renoprotective properties might serve as biomarkers, drug targets as well as therapeutic options themselves. MATERIALS AND METHODS For this review, we generated a set of renoprotective factors based on GeneRIF (Gene Reference Into Function) information available at NCBI's PubMed. The final set of manually curated renoprotective factors was investigated with respect to tissue-specific expression, subcellular location distribution and involvement in biological processes using information from gene ontology as well as information from protein-protein interaction databases. We furthermore investigated the factors in the context of clinical trials of renal disease and diabetes. RESULTS One hundred and ninety-three factors could be retrieved from the set of GeneRIFs on nephroprotection and renal repair. A large number of factors were either secretory molecules or plasma membrane receptors. Next to the elevated expression in renal tissue, also higher expression in connective tissue and pancreas was observed. The proteins could be assigned to the broad functional categories of cell proliferation and signalling, inflammatory response, apoptosis, blood pressure regulation as well as cellular response to different kinds of insults such as hypoxia, heat or mechanical stimulus. Eight factors are studied in clinical trials with additional ones being targeted by compounds. CONCLUSIONS We have generated a set of renoprotective factors based on the literature information, which was functionally annotated and evaluated with respect to tested compounds in kidney disease and diabetes clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Perco
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gert Mayer
- Department of Internal Medicine IV, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
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Yi X, Zhang J, Yan F, Lu Z, Huang J, Pan C, Yuan J, Zheng W, Zhang K, Wei D, He W, Yuan J. Synthesis of IR-780 dye-conjugated abiraterone for prostate cancer imaging and therapy. Int J Oncol 2016; 49:1911-1920. [DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2016.3693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Tissue heme oxygenase-1 exerts anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-induced pulmonary inflammation. Mucosal Immunol 2016; 9:98-111. [PMID: 25943274 DOI: 10.1038/mi.2015.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) has been shown to display anti-inflammatory properties in models of acute pulmonary inflammation. For the first time, we investigated the role of leukocytic HO-1 using a model of HO-1(flox/flox) mice lacking leukocytic HO-1 that were subjected to lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute pulmonary inflammation. Immunohistology and flow cytometry demonstrated that activation of HO-1 using hemin decreased migration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) to the lung interstitium and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) in the wild-type and, surprisingly, also in HO-1(flox/flox) mice, emphasizing the anti-inflammatory potential of nonmyeloid HO-1. Nevertheless, hemin reduced the CXCL1, CXCL2/3, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα), and interleukin 6 (IL6) levels in both animal strains. Microvascular permeability was attenuated by hemin in wild-type and HO-1(flox/flox) mice, indicating a crucial role of non-myeloid HO-1 in endothelial integrity. The determination of the activity of HO-1 in mouse lungs revealed no compensatory increase in the HO-1(flox/flox) mice. Topical administration of hemin via inhalation reduced the dose required to attenuate PMN migration and microvascular permeability by a factor of 40, emphasizing its clinical potential. In addition, HO-1 stimulation was protective against pulmonary inflammation when initiated after the inflammatory stimulus. In conclusion, nonmyeloid HO-1 is crucial for the anti-inflammatory effect of this enzyme on PMN migration to different compartments of the lung and on microvascular permeability.
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Yi X, Yan F, Wang F, Qin W, Wu G, Yang X, Shao C, Chung LWK, Yuan J. IR-780 dye for near-infrared fluorescence imaging in prostate cancer. Med Sci Monit 2015; 21:511-7. [PMID: 25686161 PMCID: PMC4335586 DOI: 10.12659/msm.892437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of this study was to investigate near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging as a novel imaging modality that allows for early detection of cancer and real-time monitoring to acquire related information. IR-780 iodide, a lipophilic dye, accumulates selectively in breast cancer cells and drug-resistant human lung cancer cells, with a peak emission at 780 nm that can be easily detected by the NIRF imaging system. The application of IR-780 for prostate cancer imaging was thoroughly investigated to further expand its clinical value. Material/Methods The impact of IR-780 on the survival of prostate cancer cells PC-3 and LNCaP as well as normal prostate epithelial cells RWPE-1 was determined. Duration of IR-780 dye staining was optimized in PC-3 cells. The involvement of specific OATP1B3 inhibitor in the selective accumulation of IR-780 was investigated. IR-780 for prostate cancer imaging was carried out in athymic nude mouse models and, acute toxicity of IR-780 was evaluated. Results IR-780 incubation resulted in a dose-dependent inhibition to cell proliferation. Mean fluorescence intensity of prostate cancer cells peaked at 20-min IR-780 incubation. Specific uptake of IR-780 dye in prostate cancer cells was mainly through the function of OATP1B3. We also demonstrated that NIRF dye effectively identified the subcutaneous prostate cancer xenografts, subsequently confirmed by histological examination. There was no significant impact on the physical activity, weight, and tissue histology of BABL/C mice with 10-fold imaging dose of 1-month IR-780 dye administration. Conclusions NIRF imaging using IR-780 dye is a feasible and practicable method for prostate cancer detection, with potential tumor-killing ability, although more investigations are needed before clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Yi
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Fei Yan
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Fuli Wang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Weijun Qin
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Guojun Wu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Chen Shao
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
| | - Leland W K Chung
- Department of Medicine, Uro-Oncology Research Program, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jianlin Yuan
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, China (mainland)
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Wang F, Liu T, Yang L, Zhang G, Liu H, Yi X, Yang X, Lin TY, Qin W, Yuan J. Urethral reconstruction with tissue-engineered human amniotic scaffold in rabbit urethral injury models. Med Sci Monit 2014; 20:2430-8. [PMID: 25424000 PMCID: PMC4257484 DOI: 10.12659/msm.891042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mitigating urethral injury remains a great challenge for urologists due to lack of ideal biomaterials for urethroplasty. The application of amniotic membranes (AM) over other synthetic materials make it a better potential source for urethral reconstruction. We separated the basement layer of AM to obtain denuded human amniotic scaffold (dHAS) and then inoculated primary rabbit urethral epithelial cells on the surface of dHAS to define whether this strategy minimize potential rejection and maximize the biocompatibility of human AM. MATERIAL/METHODS After the successful acquisition of dHAS from AM, cell-seeded dHAS were prepared and characterized. Both cell-seeded dHAS and acellular dHAS were subcutaneously implanted. Immune responses were compared by histological evaluation and CD4 cell and CD8 cell infiltrations. Then they were applied as urethroplastic materials in the rabbit models of urethral injury to fully explore the feasibility and efficacy of tissue-engineered dHAS xenografts in urethral substitution application. RESULTS Mild inflammatory infiltration was observed in cell-seeded dHAS grafts, as revealed by fewer accumulations of CD4 cells and CD8 cells (or neutrophils or other immune cells). Urethral defects of rabbits in the urethroplastic group with dHAS implantation (n=6) were completely resolved in one month, while there were one infection and one fistula in the control group with acellular dHAS patches (n=6). Histopathological analysis revealed mild immune response in cell-seeded dHAS group (P<0.05). CONCLUSIONS Tissue-engineered dHAS minimize potential rejection and maximize the biocompatibility of AM, which makes it a potential ideal xenograft for urethral reconstruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuli Wang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Tao Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Lijun Yang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Geng Zhang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Heliang Liu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Xiaomin Yi
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Tzu-yin Lin
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of California - Davis, Sacramento, USA
| | - Weijun Qin
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
| | - Jianlin Yuan
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China (mainland)
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Du C, Yi X, Liu W, Han T, Liu Z, Ding Z, Zheng Z, Piao Y, Yuan J, Han Y, Xie M, Xie X. MTDH mediates trastuzumab resistance in HER2 positive breast cancer by decreasing PTEN expression through an NFκB-dependent pathway. BMC Cancer 2014; 14:869. [PMID: 25417825 PMCID: PMC4254009 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-14-869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trastuzumab resistance is almost inevitable in the management of human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER) 2 positive breast cancer, in which phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted from chromosome 10 (PTEN) loss is implicated. Since metadherin (MTDH) promotes malignant phenotype of breast cancer, we sought to define whether MTDH promotes trastuzumab resistance by decreasing PTEN expression through an NFκB-dependent pathway. METHODS The correlations between MTDH and PTEN expressions were analyzed both in HER2 positive breast cancer tissues and trastuzumab resistant SK-BR-3 (SK-BR-3/R) cells. Gene manipulations of MTDH and PTEN levels by knockdown or overexpression were utilized to elucidate molecular mechanisms of MTDH and PTEN implication in trastuzumab resistance. For in vivo studies, SK-BR-3 and SK-BR-3/R cells and modified derivatives were inoculated into nude mice alone or under trastuzumab exposure. Tumor volumes, histological examinations as well as Ki67 and PTEN expressions were revealed. RESULTS Elevated MTDH expression indicated poor clinical benefit, shortened progression free survival time, and was negatively correlated with PTEN level both in HER2 positive breast cancer patients and SK-BR-3/R cells. MTDH knockdown restored PTEN expression and trastuzumab sensitivity in SK-BR-3/R cells, while MTDH overexpression prevented SK-BR-3 cell death under trastuzumab exposure, probably through IκBα inhibition and nuclear translocation of p65 which subsequently decreased PTEN expression. Synergized effect of PTEN regulation were observed upon MTDH and p65 co-transfection. Forced PTEN expression in SK-BR-3/R cells restored trastuzumab sensitivity. Furthermore, decreased tumor volume and Ki67 level as well as increased PTEN expression were observed after MTDH knockdown in subcutaneous breast cancer xenografts from SK-BR-3/R cells, while the opposite effect were found in grafts from MTDH overexpressing SK-BR-3 cells. CONCLUSIONS MTDH overexpression confers trastuzumab resistance in HER2 positive breast cancer. MTDH mediates trastuzumab resistance, at least in part, by PTEN inhibition through an NFκB-dependent pathway, which may be utilized as a promising therapeutic target for HER2 positive breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Yaling Han
- Department of Oncology, General Hospital of Shenyang Military Area Command, Shenyang 110016, P, R, China.
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Yuan J, Yi X, Yan F, Wang F, Qin W, Wu G, Yang X, Shao C, Chung LWK. Near‑infrared fluorescence imaging of prostate cancer using heptamethine carbocyanine dyes. Mol Med Rep 2014; 11:821-8. [PMID: 25354708 PMCID: PMC4262509 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2014.2815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Near-infrared fluorescence (NIRF) imaging is an attractive novel modality for the detection of cancer. A previous study defined two organic polymethine cyanine dyes as ideal NIRF probes, IR-783 and its derivative MHI-148, which have excellent optical characteristics, superior biocompatibility and cancer targeting abilities. To investigate the feasibility of NIRF dye-mediated prostate cancer imaging, dye uptake and subcellular co-localization were investigated in PC-3, DU-145 and LNCaP human prostate cancer cells and RWPE-1 normal prostate epithelial cells. Different organic anion transporting peptide (OATP) inhibitors were utilized to explore the potential role of the OATP subtype, including the nonspecific OATP inhibitor bromosulfophthalein, the OATP1 inhibitor 17β-estradiol, the selective OATP1B1 inhibitor rifampicin and the selective OATP1B3 inhibitor cholecystokinin octapeptide. NIRF dyes were also used for the simulated detection of circulating tumor cells and the rapid detection of prostate cancer in human prostate cancer tissues and prostate cancer xenografts in mouse models. The results revealed that the cancer-specific uptake of these organic dyes in prostate cancer cells occurred primarily via OATP1B3. A strong NIRF signal was detected in prostate cancer tissues, but not in normal tissues that were stained with IR-783. Prostate cancer cells were recognized with particular NIR fluorescence in isolated mononuclear cell mixtures. The results of the present study demonstrated that NIRF dye-mediated imaging is a feasible and practicable method for prostate cancer detection, although further investigative studies are required before clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianlin Yuan
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Xiaomin Yi
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Fei Yan
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Fuli Wang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Weijun Qin
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Guojun Wu
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Xiaojian Yang
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Chen Shao
- Department of Urology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710032, P.R. China
| | - Leland W K Chung
- Uro‑Oncology Research Program, Department of Medicine, Cedars‑Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
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Akhtar MZ, Sutherland AI, Huang H, Ploeg RJ, Pugh CW. The role of hypoxia-inducible factors in organ donation and transplantation: the current perspective and future opportunities. Am J Transplant 2014; 14:1481-7. [PMID: 24909061 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.12737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2013] [Revised: 02/11/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Hypoxia-inducible factors are the universal cellular oxygen-sensitive transcription factors that activate a number of hypoxia responsive genes, some of which are responsible for protective cellular functions. During organ donation, allografts are exposed to significant periods of hypoxia and ischemia. Exploiting this pathway during donor management and organ preservation could prevent and reduce allograft injury and improve the outcomes of organ transplantation. We review the evidence on this pathway in organ preservation, drawing on experimental studies on donor management and ischemia reperfusion injury focusing on kidney, liver, cardiac and lung transplantation. We review the major technical and experimental challenges in exploring this pathway and suggest potential future avenues for research.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Z Akhtar
- Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, Oxford Transplant Centre, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK; Centre for Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Old Road Campus, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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