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Osikowicz LM, Rizzo MR, Hojgaard A, Maes SE, Eisen RJ. Detection of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato species in host-seeking Ixodes species ticks in the United States. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2024; 15:102270. [PMID: 37813001 PMCID: PMC10877637 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2023.102270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/11/2023]
Abstract
Lyme disease is the most commonly reported vector-borne disease in the United States and is transmitted by Ixodes scapularis in the eastern US and I. pacificus in the west. The causative agents, Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (Bbss) and B. mayonii belong to the B. burgdorferi sensu lato (Bbsl) species complex. An additional eight species of Bbsl have been identified in Ixodes species ticks in the US, but their geographic distribution, vector associations, human encounter rates and pathogenicity in humans are poorly defined. To better understand the geographic distribution and vector associations of Bbsl spirochetes in frequent and infrequent human-biting Ixodes species ticks in the US, we previously screened 29,517 host-seeking I. scapularis or I. pacificus ticks and 692 ticks belonging to eight other Ixodes species for Borrelia spirochetes using a previously described tick testing algorithm that utilizes a combination of real-time PCR and Sanger sequencing for Borrelia species identification. The assay was designed to detect known human pathogens spread by Ixodes species ticks, but it was not optimized to detect Bbsl co-infections. To determine if such co-infections were overlooked particularly in ticks infected with Bbss, we retested and analyzed a subsample of 845 Borrelia infected ticks using a next generation sequencing multiplex PCR amplicon sequencing (MPAS) assay that can identify Borrelia species and Bbsl co-infections. The assay also includes targets that can molecularly confirm identifications of Ixodes species ticks to better inform pathogen-vector associations. We show that Bbss is the most prevalent species in I. scapularis and I. pacificus; other Bbsl species were rarely detected in I. scapularis and the only Bbsl co-infections identified in I. scapularis were with Bbss and B. mayonii. We detected B. andersonii in I. dentatus in the Mid-Atlantic and Upper Midwest regions, B. kurtenbachii in I. scapularis in the Upper Midwest, B. bissettiae in I. pacificus and I. spinipalpis in the Northwest, and B. carolinensis in I. affinis in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast, and B. lanei in I. spinipalpis in the Northwest. Twelve of 62 (19.4%) Borrelia-infected I. affinis from the Mid-Atlantic region were co-infected with Bbss and B. carolinensis. Our data support the notion that Bbsl species are maintained in largely independent enzootic cycles, with occasional spill-over resulting in multiple Bbsl species detected in Ixodes species ticks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynn M Osikowicz
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, United States.
| | - Maria R Rizzo
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Andrias Hojgaard
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Sarah E Maes
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Rebecca J Eisen
- Division of Vector-Borne Diseases, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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Rodríguez-Vivas RI, Ojeda-Chi MM, Thompson AT, Yabsley MJ, Colunga-Salas P, Montes SS. Population genetics of the Ixodes affinis (Ixodida: Ixodidae) complex in America: new findings and a host-parasite review. Parasitol Res 2023; 123:78. [PMID: 38158425 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-023-08091-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Ticks are hematophagous ectoparasites associated with a wide range of vertebrate hosts. Within this group, the Ixodidae family stands out, in which the Ixodes genus contains at least 245 species worldwide, from which 55 species are present in the Neotropical region. Ixodes affinis, a tick described in 1899, has a wide distribution from the Southern Cone of America to the United States. However, since its description, morphological variability has been reported among its populations. Furthermore, attempts have been made to clarify its status as a species complex using mitochondrial markers, but mainly in restricted populations of South and Central America. Thus, information related to populations of the transition region between the Neotropical and Nearctic zones is lacking. For these reasons, the objectives of the study were to evaluate the genetic diversity and structure of I. affinis across the Americas and to compile all the published records of I. affinis in America, to elucidate the host-parasite relationships and to identify their geographical distribution. For this, a phylogeny, and AMOVA analyses were performed to assess the genetic structure of samples obtained by field work in South Carolina, USA and Yucatán, Mexico. A total of 86 sequences were retrieved from a fragment of the 16S region. Phylogeny and genetic structure analysis showed four groups that were geographically and genetically related with high branch support and Fst values, all of them statistically significant. The results obtained support the hypothesis that I. affinis it corresponds to a complex of four species, which must be validated through future morphological comparisons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger I Rodríguez-Vivas
- Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, México
| | - Melina M Ojeda-Chi
- Campus de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias. Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán, México
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias Región Poza Rica-Tuxpan, Universidad Veracruzana, Carretera Tuxpan Tampico Kilómetro 7.5, Universitaria, Tuxpan de Rodríguez Cano, Veracruz, C.P. 92870, México
| | - Alec T Thompson
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study (SCWDS), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Michael J Yabsley
- Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study (SCWDS), College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
- Center for the Ecology of Infectious Diseases, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Pablo Colunga-Salas
- Instituto de Biotecnología y Ecología Aplicada, Universidad Veracruzana, Xalapa de Enríquez, Veracruz, 91090, México.
- Centro de Medicina Tropical, División de Investigación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de Mexico, México.
| | - Sokani Sánchez Montes
- Centro de Medicina Tropical, División de Investigación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de Mexico, México.
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias Región Poza Rica-Tuxpan, Universidad Veracruzana, Carretera Tuxpan Tampico Kilómetro 7.5, Universitaria, Tuxpan de Rodríguez Cano, Veracruz, C.P. 92870, México.
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López-Pérez AM, López-Fernández O, Backus L, Somerville S, Zarza H, Cassaigne I, de la Torre A, Nuñez-Perez R, Ceballos G, Guzmán-Cornejo C, Ringenbach-Valdez S, Del Rio MA, Sánchez-Montes S, Canek Anguiano D, Foley J. Spatial distribution patterns of tick community structure in sympatric jaguars (Panthera onca) and pumas (Puma concolor) from three ecoregions in Mexico. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2022; 36:371-380. [PMID: 35481550 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
We examined tick communities on wild felid hosts in three ecoregions of Mexico. We collected 186 ticks of 7 species from 10 pumas (Puma concolor) and 9 jaguars (Panthera onca). Tick community composition varied across the ecoregions, and across host species within each region. Overall, Ixodes affinis, Amblyomma ovale, and Amblyomma tenellum were the most abundant species; however, only the latter two ticks were distributed across all three ecoregions, while I. affinis, along with Ixodes spinipalpis, Amblyomma inornatum, and Amblyomma parvum were restricted to more limited geographical regions. Ixodes affinis occurred strictly in southern tropical rainforest ecoregions and was significantly more abundant in Selva Lacandona compared with the Yucatán Peninsula. Amblyomma ovale was significantly more common in the tropical dry forest in the Pacific coastal ecoregion. Amblyomma tenellum abundance tended to be higher on jaguars, while I. affinis abundance was higher on pumas. Regional distribution patterns of some tick species (e.g., I. affinis and I. spinipalpis) may be determined by off-host environmental conditions rather than host factors. In contrast, at the local scale, occurrence and abundance of some tick species (e.g., A. tenellum, A. ovale and Rhipicephalus microplus) might be driven by ecological-host factors, such as habitat use or predator-prey relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés M López-Pérez
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
- Fundación para el Manejo y la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre FMCOVIS A.C., Mexico City, Mexico
- Departamento de Etología, Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Octavio López-Fernández
- Departamento de Etología, Fauna Silvestre y Animales de Laboratorio, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Laura Backus
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Scott Somerville
- Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Heliot Zarza
- Departamento de Ciencias Ambientales, CBS, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana - Unidad Lerma, Lerma de Villada, Mexico
| | | | - Antonio de la Torre
- Laboratorio de Ecología y Conservación de Vertebrados Terrestres, Instituto de Ecología, UNAM, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Rodrigo Nuñez-Perez
- Conservacion de Vida Silvestre y Desarrollo Comunitario A.C. y Proyecto Jaguar A.C, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
| | - Gerardo Ceballos
- Laboratorio de Ecología y Conservación de Fauna Silvestre, Instituto de Ecología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carmen Guzmán-Cornejo
- Laboratorio de Acarología, Departamento de Biología Comparada, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Miguel A Del Rio
- Balam Proyectos Ecológicos S.A. de C.V., Mérida, Yucatán, Mexico
| | - Sokani Sánchez-Montes
- Centro de Medicina Tropical, División de Investigación, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Región Tuxpan, Universidad Veracruzana, Veracruz, Mexico
| | - Dorian Canek Anguiano
- Conservacion de Vida Silvestre y Desarrollo Comunitario A.C. y Proyecto Jaguar A.C, Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
| | - Janet Foley
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Nadolny RM, Toliver M, Gaff HD, Snodgrass JG, Robbins RG. Focus Stacking Images of Morphological Character States for Differentiating the Adults of Ixodes affinis and Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) in Areas of Sympatry. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 58:1941-1947. [PMID: 33864374 PMCID: PMC8285092 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Adult females and males of Ixodes affinis and Ixodes scapularis are illustrated by focus stacking image photography, and morphological character states are described that reliably differentiate the two species. In conjunction with other environmental cues, such as the questing phenology of adults, these characteristics will enable the rapid identification of adults of either sex along the southern Coastal Plain of the United States, where these species are sympatric.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robyn M Nadolny
- Army Public Health Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010, USA
| | - Marcée Toliver
- North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services, Raleigh, NC 27699, USA
| | - Holly D Gaff
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA 23529, USA
- School of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - John G Snodgrass
- Army Public Health Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010, USA
| | - Richard G Robbins
- Walter Reed Biosystematics Unit, Department of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution, MSC, MRC 534, 4210 Silver Hill Road, Suitland, MD 20746, USA
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Department of Entomology, 503 Robert Grant Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20910, USA
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Espada C, Cummins H, Gonzales JA, Notto L, Gaff HD. A Comparison of Tick Collection Materials and Methods in Southeastern Virginia. JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 58:692-698. [PMID: 33017464 PMCID: PMC7954099 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjaa207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In field studies of tick ecology, observed patterns may be biased by sampling methods. Results can vary by species, life stage, and habitat, and understanding these biases will improve comparisons of data across studies as well as assessment of human disease risk. A direct comparison of flagging versus dragging was conducted in southeastern Virginia. Transects were surveyed over a 6-wk period to identify differences in species and life stage collected, as well as differences between corduroy and denim material and inspection method for drags. Flagging collected more Ixodes affinis Neumann (Acari: Ixodidae) adults and Amblyomma americanum L. (Acari: Ixodidae) adults than dragging. Ground inspection was more efficient than tree inspection for collection of I. affinis adults, with no significant difference in inspection method for any other species or life stage. Corduroy was found to be more effective than denim in collecting nymphal A. americanum, although this may be an artifact of three large samples for corduroy collection of these ticks. There was no significant difference in Ixodes scapularis Say (Acari: Ixodidae) collection in any comparison. Dragging, tree inspection, and denim were not found to be more efficient in any scenario. This is the first comparison of flagging and dragging conducted in the southeastern United States. The community composition of ticks in this region greatly differs from regions where studies of these commonly used sampling techniques have been conducted. As the distributions of ticks continue to change over time, it will be important to evaluate best practices annually.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Espada
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
| | - Hannah Cummins
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
| | - Jon A Gonzales
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
| | - Leo Notto
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
| | - Holly D Gaff
- Department of Biological Sciences, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA
- School of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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Saleh MN, Allen KE, Lineberry MW, Little SE, Reichard MV. Ticks infesting dogs and cats in North America: Biology, geographic distribution, and pathogen transmission. Vet Parasitol 2021; 294:109392. [PMID: 33971481 PMCID: PMC9235321 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2021.109392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
A diverse array of ixodid and argasid ticks infest dogs and cats in North America, resulting in skin lesions, blood loss, and disease. The ticks most commonly found on pets in this region are hard ticks of the genera Amblyomma, Dermacentor, Ixodes, and Rhipicephalus, as well as the more recently established Haemaphysalis longicornis. Soft tick genera, especially Otobius and Ornithodoros, are also reported from pets in some regions. In this review, we provide a summary of the complex and diverse life histories, distinct morphologies, and questing and feeding behaviors of the more common ticks of dogs and cats in North America with a focus on recent changes in geographic distribution. We also review pathogens of dogs and cats associated with the different tick species, some of which can cause serious, potentially fatal disease, and describe the zoonotic risk posed by ticks of pets. Understanding the natural history of ticks and the maintenance cycles responsible for providing an ongoing source of tick-borne infections is critical to effectively combatting the challenges ticks pose to the health of pets and people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meriam N Saleh
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| | - Kelly E Allen
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States.
| | - Megan W Lineberry
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| | - Susan E Little
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
| | - Mason V Reichard
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, 74078, United States
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Passerine birds as hosts for Ixodes ticks infected with Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto in southeastern Virginia. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2021; 12:101650. [PMID: 33486431 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2021.101650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The ecology of vector-borne diseases in a region can be attributed to vector-host interactions. In the United States, tick-borne pathogens are the cause of the highest number of reported vector-borne diseases. In the mid-Atlantic region of the eastern United States, tick-borne diseases such as Lyme disease, have increased in incidence, with tick-host-pathogen interactions considered a contributing factor to this increase. Ticks become infected with pathogens after taking a blood meal from a systemically infected host or through a localized infection while co-feeding on a host with other infected ticks. The host not only plays a role in pathogen acquisition by the tick, but can also facilitate dispersal of the tick locally within a region or over greater distances into new geographical ranges outside of their historical distributional range. In this study conducted in southeastern Virginia (USA), we examined the interaction between both resident and migratory bird species and Ixodes ticks, the primary vectors of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto (s.s.) the main causative agent of Lyme disease on the East coast of the United States. Over a two-year period (2012-2014), 1879 passerine birds were surveyed, with 255 Ixodes ticks tested for the presence of Borrelia spp. Eighty passerine birds (4.3 %) representing 17 bird species were parasitized by at least one Ixodes tick, but only three bird species were parasitized by Ixodes ticks that tested positive for B. burgdorferi s.s. Twenty Ixodes ticks (7.8 %) tested positive for B. burgdorferi s.s. with nearly all collected from resident bird species including the Carolina wren (Thryothorus ludovicianus) and brown thrasher (Toxostoma rufum). Given that millions of birds pass through southeastern Virginia during migration, even with the low number of Ixodes ticks parasitizing passerine birds and the low prevalence of B. burgdorferi s.s. found within Ixodes ticks collected, the sheer volume of passerine birds suggests they may play a role in the maintenance and dispersal of B. burgdorferi s.s. in southeastern Virginia.
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Ghosh P, Saleh MN, Sundstrom KD, Ientile M, Little SE. Ixodes spp. from Dogs and Cats in the United States: Diversity, Seasonality, and Prevalence of Borrelia burgdorferi and Anaplasma phagocytophilum. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2020; 21:11-19. [PMID: 32986535 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2020.2637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ixodes spp. are commonly found on dogs and cats throughout the world. In the eastern United States, 16S rDNA sequence of Ixodes scapularis, the predominant species, reveals two clades-American and Southern. To confirm the species and clades of Ixodes spp. ticks submitted from pets, we examined ticks morphologically and evaluated 16S rDNA sequence from 500 ticks submitted from 253 dogs, 99 cats, 1 rabbit, and 1 ferret from 41 states. To estimate pathogen prevalence, flaB of Borrelia burgdorferi (Bb) sensu stricto and 16S rDNA of Anaplasma phagocytophilum (Ap) were amplified and sequenced. Most Ixodes spp. from the Northeast (n = 115/115; 100%) and the Midwest (n = 77/80; 96.3%) were I. scapularis, American clade. Borrelia spp. were identified in 34 of 192 (17.8%) and Ap in 5 of 192 (2.6%) I. scapularis. Two Ixodes cookei and one Ixodes texanus were identified from Ohio, Illinois, and Michigan. In contrast, 156 of 261 (59.8%) Ixodes spp. from the Southeast were I. scapularis, American clade; 86 of 261 (33.0%) were I. scapularis, Southern clade; 9 of 261 (3.4%) were Ixodes affinis; and 10 of 261 (3.8%) were I. cookei. Southern clade was significantly more common in Florida and less common in the upper South (p < 0.0001). One I. scapularis (1/242; 0.4%) from the Southeast (Kentucky) tested positive for Bb and 6 of 242 (2.5%) were positive for Ap. In the West, most (34/44; 77.3%) Ixodes spp. were Ixodes pacificus, with Ixodes angustus (n = 6) submitted from dogs in Alaska, Washington, and Oregon and Ixodes haerlei (n = 4) preliminarily identified from a dog in Montana. Pathogens were not detected in any ticks from the West. Although I. scapularis, American clade, predominated in the Northeast and Midwest, additional Ixodes spp. were found on dogs and cats in other regions and pathogens were less commonly detected. The role of less common Ixodes spp. as disease vectors, if any, warrants continued investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parna Ghosh
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Meriam N Saleh
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Kellee D Sundstrom
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Michelle Ientile
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Susan E Little
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma, USA
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