Sources of error in Debye-Waller-effect measurements relevant to studies of photoinduced structural dynamics

Ultrafast signatures of merocyanine overcoming steric impedance in crystalline spiropyran

Isomerisation through stereochemical changes and modulation in bond order conjugation are processes that occur ubiquitously in diverse chemical systems and for photochromic spirocompounds, it imparts them their functionality as phototransformable molecules. However, these transformations have been notoriously challenging to observe in crystals due to steric hindrance but are necessary ingredients for the development of reversible spiro-based crystalline devices. Here, we report the detection of spectroscopic signatures of merocyanine due to photoisomerisation within crystalline spiropyran following 266 nm excitation. Our femtosecond spectroscopy experiments reveal bond breaking, isomerisation and increase in bond order conjugation towards the formation of merocynine on a sub-2 ps time scale. They further unveil a lifetime of several picoseconds for the initial open ring intermediate with subsequent relaxation to mercocyanine, with established back connversion pathways, which make the system highly reversible in the solid state. Supporting femtosecond electron diffraction studies suggest that lattice strain favours the return of photoproduct to the closed spiroform. Our work thus paves the way for novel ultrafast applications from spiropyran-derived compounds.

Development of ultrafast four-dimensional precession electron diffraction

Ultrafast electron diffraction/microscopy technique enables us to investigate the nonequilibrium dynamics of crystal structures in the femtosecond-nanosecond time domain. However, the electron diffraction intensities are in general extremely sensitive to the excitation errors (i.e., deviation from the Bragg condition) and the dynamical effects, which had prevented us from quantitatively discussing the crystal structure dynamics particularly in thick samples. Here, we develop a four-dimensional precession electron diffraction (4D-PED) system by which time (t) and electron-incident-angle (ϕ) dependences of electron diffraction patterns (qx,qy) are recorded. Nonequilibrium crystal structure refinement on VTe2 demonstrates that the ultrafast change in the crystal structure can be quantitatively determined from 4D-PED. We further perform the analysis of the ϕ dependence, from which we can qualitatively estimate the change in the reciprocal lattice vector parallel to the optical axis. These results show the capability of the 4D-PED method for the quantitative investigation of ultrafast crystal structural dynamics.

Scattering angle dependence of temperature susceptivity of electron scattering in scanning transmission electron microscopy

The sensitivity of electron scattering to sample temperature (T) as a function of the scattering angle in scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) is investigated. Thermal vibration of atoms in crystal lattice results in attenuated Bragg reflections and a diffuse background in electron diffraction patterns, which have direct implications on STEM images. The scattering intensities at higher angle are known to be dominated by thermal diffuse scattering (TDS) and the column intensity is expected to have a negative correlation with increasing T because of the disrupted channeling, but the T susceptivity of the scattering intensity at smaller angles is less known. Our experiment shows that the T dependency of annular averaged diffraction intensity inverts its sign two times outside the direct beam, and the T sensitivity varies significantly as a function of scattering angle. The intensity shows a positive correlation with increasing T at the low to intermediate angular ranges before it returns to the negative correlation at the higher angle range. A reasonable agreement is found between the experimental data and multislice simulation data. Absorptive model is used to provide theoretical insights into the observed trends. Similar inversions of T dependency of column intensities are also observed in experimental and simulated atomic-resolution STEM images. The findings provide an important implication to the precise quantification of local T at high spatial resolution by optimizing the collection angles in STEM.

High-resolution analogue of time-domain phonon spectroscopy in the transmission electron microscope

Femtosecond photoexcitation of semiconducting materials leads to the generation of coherent acoustic phonons (CAPs), the behaviours of which are linked to intrinsic and engineered electronic, optical and structural properties. While often studied with pump-probe spectroscopic techniques, the influence of nanoscale structure and morphology on CAP dynamics can be challenging to resolve with these all-optical methods. Here, we used ultrafast electron microscopy (UEM) to resolve variations in CAP dynamics caused by differences in the degree of crystallinity in as-prepared and annealed GaAs lamellae. Following in situ femtosecond photoexcitation, we directly imaged the generation and propagation dynamics of hypersonic CAPs in a mostly amorphous and, following an in situ photothermal anneal, a mostly crystalline lamella. Subtle differences in both the initial hypersonic velocities and the asymptotic relaxation behaviours were resolved via construction of space-time contour plots from phonon wavefronts. Comparison to bulk sound velocities in crystalline and amorphous GaAs reveals the influence of the mixed amorphous-crystalline morphology on CAP dispersion behaviours. Further, an increase in the asymptotic velocity following annealing establishes the sensitivity of quantitative UEM imaging to both structural and compositional variations through differences in bonding and elasticity. Implications of extending the methods and results reported here to elucidating correlated electronic, optical and structural behaviours in semiconducting materials are discussed. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Dynamic in situ microscopy relating structure and function'.

Light-Induced Anisotropic Morphological Dynamics of Black Phosphorus Membranes Visualized by Dark-Field Ultrafast Electron Microscopy

Black phosphorus (BP) is an elemental layered material with a strong in-plane anisotropic structure. This structure is accompanied by anisotropic optical, electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties. Despite interest in BP from both fundamental and technical aspects, investigation into the structural dynamics of BP caused by strain fields, which are prevalent for two-dimensional (2D) materials and tune the material physical properties, has been overlooked. Here, we report the morphological dynamics of photoexcited BP membranes observed using time-resolved diffractograms and dark-field images obtained via ultrafast electron microscopy. Aided by 4D reconstruction, we visualize the nonequilibrium bulging of thin BP membranes and reveal that the buckling transition is driven by impulsive thermal stress upon photoexcitation in real time. The bulging, buckling, and flattening (on strain release) showed anisotropic spatiotemporal behavior. Our observations offer insights into the fleeting morphology of anisotropic 2D matter and provide a glimpse into the mapping of transient, modulated physical properties upon impulsive excitation, as well as strain engineering at the nanoscale.

Imaging phonon dynamics with ultrafast electron microscopy: Kinematical and dynamical simulations

Ultrafast x-ray and electron scattering techniques have proven to be useful for probing the transient elastic lattice deformations associated with photoexcited coherent acoustic phonons. Indeed, femtosecond electron imaging using an ultrafast electron microscope (UEM) has been used to directly image the influence of nanoscale structural and morphological discontinuities on the emergence, propagation, dispersion, and decay behaviors in a variety of materials. Here, we describe our progress toward the development of methods ultimately aimed at quantifying acoustic-phonon properties from real-space UEM images via conventional image simulation methods extended to the associated strain-wave lattice deformation symmetries and extents. Using a model system consisting of pristine single-crystal Ge and a single, symmetric Lamb-type guided-wave mode, we calculate the transient strain profiles excited in a wedge specimen and then apply both kinematical- and dynamical-scattering methods to simulate the resulting UEM bright-field images. While measurable contrast strengths arising from the phonon wavetrains are found for optimally oriented specimens using both approaches, incorporation of dynamical scattering effects via a multi-slice method returns better qualitative agreement with experimental observations. Contrast strengths arising solely from phonon-induced local lattice deformations are increased by nearly an order of magnitude when incorporating multiple electron scattering effects. We also explicitly demonstrate the effects of changes in global specimen orientation on the observed contrast strength, and we discuss the implications for increasing the sophistication of the model with respect to quantification of phonon properties from UEM images.

Influence of Discrete Defects on Observed Acoustic-Phonon Dynamics in Layered Materials Probed with Ultrafast Electron Microscopy

The structural anisotropy of layered materials leads to disparate lattice responses along different crystallographic directions following femtosecond photoexcitation. Ultrafast scattering methods are well-suited to resolving such responses, though probe size and specimen structure and morphology must be considered when interpreting results. Here we use ultrafast electron microscopy (UEM) imaging and diffraction to study the influence of individual multilayer terraces and few-layer step-edges on acoustic-phonon dynamics in 1T-TaS₂ and 2H-MoS₂. In TaS₂, we find that a multilayer terrace produces distinct, localized responses arising from thickness-dependent c-axis phonon dynamics. Convolution of the responses is demonstrated with ultrafast selected-area diffraction by limiting the probe size and training it on the region of interest. This results in a reciprocal-space frequency response that is a convolution of the spatially separated behaviors. Sensitivity of phonon dynamics to few-layer step-edges in MoS₂ and the capability of UEM imaging to resolve the influence of such defects are also demonstrated. Spatial frequency maps from the UEM image series reveal regions separated by a four-layer step-edge having 60.0 GHz and 63.3 GHz oscillation frequencies, again linked to c-axis phonon propagation. As with ultrafast diffraction, signal convolution is demonstrated by continuous increase of the size of the selected region of interest used in the analysis.