The evolving role of pelvic lymphadenectomy in the treatment of bladder cancer

Perioperative outcomes of robot-assisted laparoscopic partial cystectomy

Reports of surgical outcomes after robotic partial cystectomy are limited. The objective of this study is to review surgical outcomes after robotic partial cystectomy at a large tertiary referral center and compare outcomes with patients undergoing open partial cystectomy. Patients undergoing robotic partial cystectomy between 2003 and 2014 were identified. Patients were matched 2:1 based on gender, age, and Charlson Comorbidity Score with patients undergoing open partial cystectomy during the same time period. Patient charts were reviewed for surgical outcomes. Conditional logistic regression adjusted for matching was used to compare outcomes. At our institution, 11 patients underwent robotic partial cystectomy between 2003 and 2014. Median operative time was significantly longer in the robotic group, 214 (IQR 93, 230) minutes, than the open group, 93 (IQR 58, 143) minutes (p = 0.01). There was no difference in median estimated blood loss (p = 0.1). No patient required transfusion. There were no intraoperative complications. Median hospital stay was significantly shorter in the robotic partial cystectomy group, 1 (IQR 1, 2) day, than the open partial cystectomy group, 2 (IQR 2, 4) days (p = 0.01). Median duration of catheterization and complications within 30 days of surgery were not statistically different between the two groups. Median follow-up was 15.5 (IQR 8.6, 19.7) months for the robotic partial cystectomy group and 40.7 (IQR 6.5, 69.4) months for the open partial cystectomy group. Robotic partial cystectomy is safe, effective, and is associated with minimal morbidity when performed in properly selected patients for benign and malignant indications. When compared with open partial cystectomy, robotic partial cystectomy is associated with a longer operative time, but results in a shorter postoperative hospital stay.

A standardized protocol for identifying and counting lymph nodes harvested by pelvic lymph node dissection at the time of radical cystectomy

INTRODUCTION

Lymph node counts have become a surrogate measure for the extent and quality of pelvic lymph node dissection (PLND) at radical cystectomy, but little consideration has been given to the methodology of lymph node processing. We report results from a prospective series comparing a conventional protocol for processing PLND specimens to a fat-emulsifying protocol. We hypothesized that the rate of node positivity would increase with the fat-emulsifying protocol.

METHODS

Patients undergoing radical cystectomy for cTis-T4aN0-1M0 urothelial carcinoma of the bladder were eligible for this trial. Palpable lymph nodes were isolated from the PLND specimens in the conventional protocol. The remaining tissue was then processed with fat-emulsifying solution to identify further nodes visually. Nodal counts were compared between techniques.

RESULTS

The median number of nodes counted in the PLND specimens of 26 patients was 24.5 (range: 20-40) with conventional processing and 37 (range: 24-52) with the fat-emulsifying solution (p < 0.001). Three patients had lymph node positive disease detected by conventional means, and a single patient was found to have a single positive node by the fat-emulsifying solution alone. The study was closed early after conducting a futility analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

A fat-emulsifying protocol identified more lymph nodes than a conventional protocol and may be an appropriate method to standardize lymph node processing following PLND. However, we were unable to show that such a standardized approach significantly increased the rate of node positivity in patients undergoing radical cystectomy.

Lymphadenectomy with radical cystectomy at an Australian tertiary referral institution: time trends and impact on oncological outcomes

BACKGROUND

Lymph node dissection (LND) with radical cystectomy (RC) for surgical treatment of invasive urothelial carcinoma of the bladder can improve staging and has possible therapeutic benefit. The aim of this study was to assess utilization and extent of LND with RC at our institution and determine its impact on oncological outcomes.

METHODS

Using surgical databases and hospital coding, clinical and histopathological characteristics of 87 patients who underwent RC at Austin Health between 2004 and 2011 were retrospectively analysed. Associations of predictor variables with LND use and lymph node (LN) status were analysed using logistic regression. Survival analyses were undertaken using Cox proportional hazard models.

RESULTS

Fifty-eight (65.9%) patients underwent LND, with a clear trend over time in the proportion of patients undergoing LND (three of seven in 2004 up to 10 of 10 in 2011, P < 0.001) and the median (range) of LN yield from five (2-19) in 2004 to 18 (7-35) in 2011 (P < 0.001). Year of treatment was the only significant predictor (univariately and multivariately) of a patient undergoing LND. Multivariately, a significant association with nodal metastases was found for cN stage and planned extent of LND preoperatively, and pT stage postoperatively. LN status was associated significantly with recurrence-free survival with best outcomes in patients who were node-negative on a pelvic LND. A similar trend was seen for cancer-specific survival (P = 0.053).

CONCLUSIONS

Over the study period, there was an increase in the use of pelvic LND and LN numbers retrieved during RC. LN status appears to impact on recurrence-free survival, and possibly cancer-specific survival.

The history and anatomy of urologic lymphadenectomy

The history of urologic lymphadenectomy is rich and diverse. Our current understanding of its use and benefits is a product of the hard work of numerous physicians and scientists from many nations. Standard dissection templates for the various urologic malignancies are based on a complete understanding of the anatomy of the lymphatic system, which has developed immensely since Hippocrates first described the white blood of the lymphatic system while performing an axillary dissection. It is hoped that the next 100 years will bring even greater comprehension of its value and utility.

Variation in use of lymph node dissection during radical cystectomy for bladder cancer

OBJECTIVES

To better inform avenues for improving the quality of bladder cancer care, we evaluated whether the variation in pelvic lymph node dissection during radical cystectomy was primarily due to the patient or the surgeon. In the clinical guidelines, pelvic lymph node dissection has been recommended as an adjunct to radical cystectomy. However, its use and extent have varied across providers and regions.

METHODS

Using the national Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results-Medicare linked data for 1992-2005, we identified 4472 patients who had undergone radical cystectomy for bladder cancer. Generalized linear multilevel models were fit to assess the relationships between patient and surgeon characteristics and the use and extent (≥10 nodes) of lymphadenectomy. Using a similar modeling framework, we partitioned the variation between the patient and surgeon levels.

RESULTS

Of the 4472 patients who underwent radical cystectomy, 3124 (69.9%) had undergone concurrent lymph node dissection. Of those undergoing lymphadenectomy, only 22% had ≥10 nodes removed. The use of node dissection was primarily determined by the surgeon, which explained 57% of the variation, compared with the patient and disease, which explained only 4.5% of the variability. In contrast, patient level factors explained most of the variation in whether a patient had ≥10 nodes removed.

CONCLUSIONS

Pelvic lymph node dissection is relatively common during radical cystectomy, although nearly 1 in 3 patients do not undergo the procedure. Our results also showed that the physician a patient sees for their bladder cancer matters more than the disease severity in terms of the patient receiving recommended care.

Partial cystectomy does not undermine cancer control in appropriately selected patients with urothelial carcinoma of the bladder: a population-based matched analysist

OBJECTIVES

Cancer control outcomes after partial cystectomy (PC) are not well studied. We compared the population-based rates of overall (OS) and cause-specific survival (CSS) in patients with urothelial carcinoma of the urinary bladder (UCB) treated with PC or radical cystectomy (RC).

METHODS

Within the Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results-9 database, we identified 7243 patients treated with PC (n = 1573) or RC (n = 5670), who had pathologic T(1-4)N(1-2)M(0) UCB. Matched Kaplan-Meier survival analyses compared the effect of PC vs RC on OS and CSS.

RESULTS

In the entire cohort, the OS and CSS estimates at 5 years were 57.2% and 76.4%, respectively, for PC patients and 50.2% and 65.8%, respectively, for RC patients (P < .001). In the cohort matched for age, race, pT stage, pN stage, tumor grade, and year of surgery, at 5 years the OS and CSS estimates were 56.0% and 73.5%, respectively, for PC patients, and 50.9% and 67.5%, respectively, for RC patients (OS, P = .03 and CSS, P < .001). When the number of removed lymph nodes was added to the matching criteria, the 5-year OS and CSS estimates were 57.2% and 70.3%, respectively, for PC patients, and 54.6% and 69.2%, respectively, for RC patients (HR 1.1, P = .3 and HR 1.1, P = .5).

CONCLUSIONS

Partial cystectomy does not undermine cancer control in appropriately selected patients with UCB.

Comparison of 2002 TNM nodal status with lymph node density in node-positive patients after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer: analysis by the number of lymph nodes removed

OBJECTIVE

Because 2002 TNM pathologic nodal (pN) status was established in patients from whom a relatively small number of lymph nodes had been removed, it is necessary to validate this staging system in current clinical practice, in which the removal of more lymph nodes is recommended during radical cystectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy. We assessed the ability of lymph node density (LND) and 2002 TNM pathologic nodal (pN) status to predict disease-specific survival (DSS) in node-positive patients after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer, and investigated whether these factors were affected by the number of lymph nodes removed during pelvic lymphadenectomy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated outcomes in 130 patients with nodal metastases after radical cystectomy performed between 1989 and 2006. Patients were divided into 2 subgroups based on the median number of lymph nodes removed, those with <15 and those with ≥ 15 lymph nodes removed. The effect of several variables on DSS was assessed.

RESULTS

The overall 5-year DSS rate was 38.5%. Multivariate analysis showed that in the entire cohort, LND (HR = 2.28, 1.04-5.03, P = 0.041) and the use of adjuvant chemotherapy (HR = 2.68, 1.42-5.06, P = 0.002) were significant predictors of DSS. In patients with <15 lymph nodes removed, pN status (HR = 5.19, 1.24-21.75, P = 0.024) and use of adjuvant chemotherapy (HR = 6.23, 2.32-16.73, P < 0.001) were independent predictors of DSS. In patients with ≥ 15 lymph nodes removed, however, only LND (HR = 4.08, 1.10-15.10, P = 0.036) was a predictor of DSS.

CONCLUSIONS

LND was an independent predictor of DSS in node-positive patients. However, when small numbers of lymph nodes were removed, TNM pN status was a better predictor than LND. These findings suggest that abilities of TNM pN status and LND in node-positive patients to predict DSS could be affected by the total number of lymph nodes removed.

Bladder cancer: modeling and translation

Transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder is a common malignancy worldwide that is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Although superficial tumors can often be treated effectively, invasive cancers not only require invasive surgery, but are also refractory to aggressive chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In this issue of Genes & Development, Puzio-Kuter and colleagues (pp. 675-680) describe an elegant genetically engineered murine model of bladder cancer that recapitulates many of the cardinal features of the human disease. The development of such models together with the application of new approaches to enumerate the complement of genetic alterations in bladder will provide new insights into the molecular nature of this disease. Moreover, the anatomy of this urinary malignancy provides a unique opportunity for innovative translational studies.

Current status of neoadjuvant and adjuvant chemotherapy for muscle-invasive bladder cancer

Muscle-invasive transitional cell carcinoma occurs in approximately 30% of patients and is associated with a high risk of distant metastasis. Radical local therapy in the form of cystectomy or radiotherapy is curative in a portion of patients. Systemic therapy to treat occult micrometastasis at the time of local control is necessary to improve outcomes. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy is associated with a 5-6% improvement in overall survival at 5 years, and adjuvant chemotherapy may achieve similar results, although this remains unproven. Operative complications are not increased with neoadjuvant therapy. Perioperative treatment strategies remain underutilized, and many patients are not offered treatment to reduce the risk of relapse. Neoadjuvant strategies are a potent tool for research and should be employed to test new agents for the treatment of transitional cell carcinoma.

[The usefulness of pelvic lymphadenectomy in bladder cancer]

OBJECTIVE

[corrected] To assess the usefulness of pelvic lymphadenectomy in bladder cancer.

METHODS AND RESULTS

With the followings key words: "bladder cancer, lymphadenectomy, lymph node metastasis" we search in Medline/PubMed database for papers published during the last ten years. Thirty three papers fulfilling the search criteria were selected.

CONCLUSIONS

It does not exist any randomized prospective study comparing different pelvic lymphadenectomy techniques. Nodal metastasis in bladder cancer after radical cystectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy ranged between 18% and 28%. Standard lymphadenectomy could improve tumor staging and probably survival in selected patients. It is advisable to remove, as a quality parameter, at least 10 to 14 nodes in a pelvic lymphadenectomy. Lymph node density seems to predict survival better than TNM staging system. It is advisable to perform separate lymph node dissection rather than en-bloc.

Technology Insight: surgical robots--expensive toys or the future of urologic surgery?

There is an increasing demand for minimally invasive surgery, despite any controversy over whether patients benefit from minimally invasive procedures rather than undergoing open surgery. In the field of urology, the performance of more complicated procedures is still a challenge even for experienced laparoscopic surgeons. Recently, robots have been introduced to enhance operative performance, increase applicability and precision of laparoscopy, and improve the learning curve for complicated minimally invasive procedures. With the introduction of master-slave systems where the surgeon is seated remotely from the robot and uses controls to maneuver the mechanical arms placed inside the patient, a new development in robot-assisted surgery has commenced. Several authors have suggested that surgical robots similar to the da Vinci Surgical System (Intuitive Surgical, Sunnyvale, CA), which have three-dimensional (3D) vision and wristed instruments thus giving a greater degree of freedom than rigid laparoscopic instruments, will facilitate the outcome of these more challenging laparoscopic procedures. Whether these features will translate into better functional and oncological results remains to be evaluated. Data published so far clearly suggest that the patient will benefit from less postoperative pain, decreased bleeding and a shorter hospital stay compared with open surgery, and that the surgeon benefits from a faster learning curve than for conventional laparoscopy. For the benefit of our patients and for the development of urology it is vital that we understand both the limitations of telerobotics and when it is appropriate to incorporate these new techniques in day-to-day urologic surgery.

Lymphovascular Invasion Is Independently Associated With Overall Survival, Cause-Specific Survival, and Local and Distant Recurrence in Patients With Negative Lymph Nodes at Radical Cystectomy

Purpose

We hypothesized that bladder cancer patients with associated lymphovascular invasion (LVI) are at increased risk of occult metastases.

Methods

A multi-institutional group (University of Texas Southwestern [Dallas, TX], Baylor College of Medicine [Houston, TX], Johns Hopkins University [Baltimore, MD]) carried out a retrospective study of 958 patients who underwent cystectomy for bladder cancer between 1984 and 2003. Of patients with transitional-cell carcinoma (n = 776), LVI status was available for 750. LVI was defined as the presence of tumor cells within an endothelium-lined space.

Results

LVI was present in 36.4% (273 of 750) overall, involving 26% (151 of 581) and 72% (122 of 169) of node-negative and node-positive patients, respectively. Prevalence of LVI increased with higher pathologic stage (9.0%, 23%, 60%, and 78%, for T1, T2, T3, and T4, respectively; P < .001). Using multivariate Cox regression analyses including age, stage, grade, and number of pelvic lymph nodes removed, LVI was an independent predictor of local (HR = 2.03, P = .049), distant (HR = 2.60, P = .0011), and overall (HR = 2.02, P = .0003) recurrence in node-negative patients. LVI was an independent predictor of overall (HR = 1.84, P = .0002) and cause-specific (HR = 2.07, P = .0012) survival in node-negative patients. LVI maintained its independent predictor status in competing risks regression models (P = .013), where other-cause mortality was considered as a competing risk. LVI was not a predictor of recurrence or survival in node-positive patients.

Conclusion

LVI is an independent predictor of recurrence and decreased cause-specific and overall survival in patients who undergo cystectomy for invasive bladder cancer and are node-negative. These patients represent a high risk group that may benefit from integrated therapy with cystectomy and perioperative systemic chemotherapy.

Lymph node metastasis in bladder cancer

OBJECTIVE

We reviewed the literature on nodal staging in patients with bladder cancer treated with radical cystectomy and lymphadenectomy.

RESULTS

Fractionating the lymph node specimen significantly increases the node count, whereas results are contradictory as to whether that increase improves detection of positive nodes. Pathoanatomic data indicate that extending lymph node dissection to the aortic bifurcation improves nodal staging. That approach might be beneficial, especially in cases of T3/T4a tumours, which more often have lymph node metastases above the iliac bifurcation as compared to less advanced tumours. In node-negative patients, extended lymph node dissection probably removes undetected micrometastases and thereby increases disease-free survival. Four studies suggested that a minimum of 8, 10, 10-14, and 16 nodes must be removed, to improve survival, and in another investigation aortic bifurcation was proposed as the upper limit for dissection. Some patients with positive nodes can be cured by surgery alone, even those with gross adenopathy. There is no evidence that extended lymphadenectomy increases surgery-related morbidity. The TNM classification is apparently insufficient for stratifying node-positive patients because several larger cystectomy series could not verify differences in survival between N groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Fractionating the lymphadenectomy specimen increases the lymph node count. In node-negative patients, more meticulous and extended lymph node dissection (8-16 nodes or to the aortic bifurcation) probably improves disease-free survival by removing undetected micrometastases. Patients with positive lymph nodes should also be offered radical cystectomy.

Bladder cancer

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

This article reviews the recent literature concerning important issues in the management of patients with bladder cancer. A brief overview of all aspects of bladder cancer including the etiology, diagnosis, and treatment are discussed with a focus on recent advances.

RECENT FINDINGS

Bladder cancer is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. The treatment for bladder cancer should be based on individual patient risk assessment and should include a multidisciplinary approach. In patients with superficial bladder cancer, research has focused on improving and optimizing intravesical therapy to reduce tumor recurrence and progression as well as on methods to better select the most appropriate treatment for patients with high-risk features. The important prognostic and therapeutic role of lymphadenectomy during radical cystectomy has become apparent and recent work has attempted to better define what should be considered the standard for lymph node dissection. Finally, in an attempt to improve survival, advances have been made using systemic chemotherapy in both the perioperative settings as well as for treatment of metastatic bladder cancer.

SUMMARY

Research continues to improve our understanding of bladder cancer. This ongoing investigation is currently being translated to the bedside with refinements in the diagnosis and treatment of patients with bladder cancer.

Update on chemotherapy for advanced bladder cancer

PURPOSE

Recent years have seen several advances in the treatment of locally advanced and metastatic bladder cancer. We summarize the current state of the art for advanced bladder cancer treatment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A comprehensive review of published, prospective phase II/III clinical trials and retrospective analyses of patients with advanced bladder cancer was performed.

RESULTS

Adjuvant and neoadjuvant chemotherapeutic strategies around the time of radical cystectomy have been used to decrease the risk of subsequent metastatic disease. Although the benefit of adjuvant chemotherapy remains unproven, neoadjuvant chemotherapy is associated with a modest 5% to 6% absolute survival benefit in 2 meta-analyses of the available data. Chemoradiation is feasible and effective in some patients, allowing bladder preservation with an acceptable risk of progression. Randomized, phase III data comparing methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin and cisplatin chemotherapy to gemcitabine/cisplatin showed similar response proportions and overall survival with less toxicity in the gemcitabine/cisplatin arm. This has led to the widespread use of gemcitabine/cisplatin as first line chemotherapy for metastatic bladder cancer. The optimal agents and regimens for second line chemotherapy remain undefined. Similarly biological and targeted therapies for advanced bladder cancer remain investigational.

CONCLUSIONS

Combination cisplatin based neoadjuvant chemotherapy may benefit patients with locally advanced bladder cancer. Gemcitabine/cisplatin has replaced methotrexate, vinblastine, doxorubicin and cisplatin as the regimen of choice in patients with good renal function. The optimal regimens for the medically unfit patient and second line chemotherapy remain undefined. The development of targeted therapies, less toxic regimens and improved cytotoxic agents are necessary to improve outcomes.