Dexmedetomidine or fentanyl? Cardiovascular stability and analgesia during propofol-ketamine total intravenous anaesthesia in experimental pigs

Decreasing the blood flow of non-compressible intra-abdominal organs with non-invasive transcutaneous electrical stimulation

Non-invasive neuromodulation of non-compressible internal organs has significant potential for internal organ bleeding and blood-shift in aero/space medicine. The present study aims to investigate the potential influences of the non-invasive transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) on multiple non-compressible internal organs' blood flow. Porcine animal model (n = 8) was randomized for a total of 48 neuromodulation sessions with two different TENS stimulation frequencies (80 Hz, 10 Hz) and a placebo stimulation. A combination of two different electrode configurations (Abdominal-only or Abdominal and hind limb) were also performed. Intraarterial blood flow measurements were taken during pre and post-stimulation periods at the left renal artery, common hepatic artery, and left coronary artery. Intracranial, and extracranial arterial blood flows were also assessed with digital subtraction angiography. TENS with abdominal-only electrode configurations at 10 Hz demonstrated significant reductions in average peak blood flow velocity (APV) of the common hepatic artery (p = 0.0233) and renal arteries (p = 0.0493). Arterial pressures (p = 0.0221) were also significantly lower when renal APV was reduced. The outcome of the present study emphasises the potential use of TENS in decreasing the blood flow of non-compressible internal organs when the correct combination of electrodes configuration and frequency is used.

Establishment and validation of intravenous anesthesia with dexmedetomidine for pigs under assisted spontaneous breathing: A preclinical model of intensive care conditions

Large animal models are frequently used to investigate new medical approaches. In most cases, animals are kept under general anesthesia and mandatory mechanical ventilation during the experiments. However, in some situations assisted spontaneous breathing is essential, e.g. when simulating conditions in a modern intensive care unit. Therefore, we established an anesthesia regime with dexmedetomidine and midazolam/ketamine in porcine models of assisted spontaneous breathing. The total intravenous anesthesia was used in lung healthy pigs, in pigs with oleic acid induced acute respiratory distress syndrome and in pigs with methacholine induced bronchopulmonary obstruction. We were able to maintain stable conditions of assisted spontaneous breathing without impairment of hemodynamic, respiratory or blood gas variables in lung healthy pigs and pigs with induced acute respiratory distress syndrome for a period of five hours and in pigs with induced bronchopulmonary obstruction for three hours. Total intravenous anesthesia containing dexmedetomidine enables stable conditions of assisted spontaneous breathing in healthy pigs, in pigs with induced acute respiratory distress syndrome and in pigs induced bronchopulmonary obstruction as models of intensive care unit conditions.

Sedline® Miscalculation of Depth of Anaesthesia Variables in Two Pigs Due to Electrocardiographic Signal Contamination

Two young (11-week-old) pigs underwent sole propofol anaesthesia as part of an experimental study. The depth of anaesthesia was evaluated both clinically and using the electroencephalography(EEG)-based monitor Sedline; in particular, the patient state index, suppression ratio, raw EEG traces, and its spectrogram were assessed. Physiological parameters and electrocardiographic activity were continuously monitored. In one pig (Case 1), during the administration of high doses of propofol, the Sedline-generated variables suddenly indicated an increased EEG activity while this was not confirmed by observation of either the raw EEG or its spectrogram. In the second pig (Case 2), a similar event was recorded during euthanasia with systemic pentobarbital. Both events happened while the EEG activity was isoelectric except for signal interferences and synchronous in rhythm and shape with the electrocardiographic activity. The suggestion of increased brain activity based on the interpretation of the Sedline variables was suspected wrong; most probably due to electrocardiographic interferences. In pigs, the patient state index and suppression ratio, as calculated by the Sedline monitor, could be influenced by the electrocardiographic activity contaminating the EEG trace, especially during otherwise isoelectric periods (strong EEG depression). Visual interpretation of the raw EEG and of the spectrogram remains necessary to identify such artefacts.

High and Hyper: Fentanyl Induces Psychomotor Side-Effects in Healthy Pigs

Analgesic effects of fentanyl have been investigated using behavior. The behavioral effects of fentanyl and possible serotonergic influence are largely unknown. We therefore investigated behavioral effects of fentanyl, with or without the serotonin antagonist ketanserin, in pigs. Fourteen mixed-breed pigs, weighing 17-25 kg were included in a randomised blinded prospective, balanced three-group study. Ten pigs received first 5 and then 10 µg/kg of fentanyl intravenously. Ketanserin at 1 mg/kg or saline was given intravenously as a third injection. Four control pigs received three injections of saline. Behavior was video-recorded. The distance moved was automatically measured by commercially available software, and behaviors manually scored in retrospect. Fentanyl inhibited resting and playing, and induced different repetitive behaviors. The mean (SD) distance moved in the control group and fentanyl group was 21.3 (13.0) and 57.8 (20.8) metres respectively (p < 0.05 for pairwise comparison). A stiff gait pattern was seen after fentanyl injection for median (range) 4.2 (2.8-5.1) minutes per 10 min, which was reduced to 0 (0-4) s after ketanserin administration. Conclusion: fentanyl-induced motor and behavioral effects, and serotonergic transmission may be involved in some of them. The psychomotor side effects of fentanyl could potentially interfere with post-operative pain evaluation in pigs.

Comparison of two injectable anaesthetic protocols in Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) undergoing gonadectomy

Egyptian fruit bats have gained increasing interest being a natural reservoir for emerging zoonotic viruses. Anaesthesia is often required to allow safe handling of bats. We aimed to compare the sedative and cardiopulmonary effects of two balanced anaesthetic protocols in bats undergoing gonadectomy. Group DK (n = 10) received intramuscular dexmedetomidine (40 µg/kg) and ketamine (7 mg/kg), whereas group DBM (n = 10) received intramuscular dexmedetomidine (40 µg/kg), butorphanol (0.3 mg/kg) and midazolam (0.3 mg/kg). Induction time and cardiopulmonary parameters were recorded. If anaesthetic plan was inadequate, isoflurane was titrated-to-effect. At the end of surgery venous blood gas analysis was performed and atipamezole or atipamezole-flumazenil was administered for timed and scored recovery. In DBM group heart rate and peripheral oxygen saturation were significantly higher (p = 0.001; p = 0.003 respectively), while respiratory rate was significantly lower (p = 0.001). All bats required isoflurane supplementation with no significant differences between groups. Induction and recovery times showed no significant differences. In group DK a better recovery was scored (p = 0.034). Sodium and chloride were significantly higher in DBM group (p = 0.001; p = 0.002 respectively). Both anaesthetic protocols were comparable and can be recommended for minor procedures in bats.

Dos and don'ts in large animal models of aortic insufficiency

Aortic insufficiency caused by paravalvular leakage (PVL) is one of the most feared complications following transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVI) in patients. Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domestica) are a popular large animal model to study such conditions and develop novel diagnostic and therapeutic techniques. However, the models based on prosthetic valve implantation are time intensive, costly, and often hamper further hemodynamic measurements such as PV loop and 4D MRI flow by causing implantation-related wall motion abnormalities and degradation of MR image quality. This study describes in detail, the establishment of a minimally invasive porcine model suitable to study the effects of mild-to-moderate “paravalvular“ aortic regurgitation on left ventricular (LV) performance and blood flow patterns, particularly under the influence of altered afterload, preload, inotropic state, and heart rate. Six domestic pigs (Swiss large white, female, 60–70 kg of body weight) were used to establish this model. The defects on the hinge point of aortic leaflets and annulus were created percutaneously by the pierce-and-dilate technique either in the right coronary cusp (RCC) or in the non-coronary cusp (NCC). The hemodynamic changes as well as LV performance were recorded by PV loop measurements, while blood flow patterns were assessed by 4D MRI. LV performance was additionally challenged by pharmaceutically altering cardiac inotropy, chronotropy, and afterload. The presented work aims to elaborate the dos and don'ts in porcine models of aortic insufficiency and intends to steepen the learning curve for researchers planning to use this or similar models by giving valuable insights ranging from animal selection to vascular access choices, placement of PV Loop catheter, improvement of PV loop data acquisition and post-processing and finally the induction of paravalvular regurgitation of the aortic valve by a standardized and reproducible balloon induced defect in a precisely targeted region of the aortic valve.

Comparison of cardiorespiratory and anesthetic effects of ketamine-midazolam-xylazine-sufentanil and tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine in miniature pigs

Effective and adequate anesthesia is conducive to better restrain for pigs during surgical or diagnostic procedures This study aimed to evaluate cardiorespiratory and anesthetic effects of ketamine-midazolam-xylazine-sufentanil or tiletamine-zolazepam-xylazine as general anesthetics in miniature pigs. In phase 1, one of the combinations was administered intramuscularly to miniature pigs. The KMXS protocol combined 10 mg kg^-1 ketamine, 0.5 mg kg^-1 midazolam, and 2 mg kg^-1 xylazine with 2 μg kg^-1 sufentanil. The TZX protocol combined 2.2 mg kg^-1 tiletamine, 2.2 mg kg^-1 zolazepam, and 1.4 mg kg^-1 xylazine. After treatment, the mean arterial pressure, systolic arterial pressure, diastolic arterial pressure, heart rate, respiratory rate, peripheral hemoglobin oxygen saturation, rectal temperature, and anesthesia quality were recorded. In phase 2, the feasibility of KMXS and TZX as general anesthetics were evaluated for pig castration. In phase 1, both drug combinations provided smooth induction with similar anesthetic effects. The KMXS protocol provided moderate anesthesia for 60–70 minutes in pigs, while the TZX protocol provided 30–45 minutes. In phase 2, castration was completed smoothly in all pigs with little fluctuation in physiological variables. The KMXS protocol is better for medium-term anesthesia, while the TZX protocol is preferable for short-term anesthesia in pigs.

Comparison of two injectable anaesthetic techniques on induction and subsequent anaesthesia in pigs

Pig experiments often require anaesthesia, and a rapid stress-free induction is desired. Induction drugs may alter the subsequent anaesthesia. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to compare, in pigs, the effects of two different injectable anaesthetic techniques on the induction and on the physiological variables in a subsequent eight hours of total intravenous anaesthesia (TIVA). Twelve domestic castrates (Swedish Landrace/Yorkshire) 27‒31 kg were used. The pigs were randomly assigned to different induction drug combinations of zolazepam-tiletamine and medetomidine intramuscularly (ZTMe) or midazolam, ketamine intramuscularly and fentanyl intravenously (MiKF). Time from injection to unconsciousness was recorded and the ease of endotracheal intubation assessed. The TIVA infusion rate was adjusted according to the response exhibited from the nociceptive stimulus delivered by mechanically clamping the dewclaw. The time from injection to unconsciousness was briefer and intubation was easier in the ZTMe group. Results from the recorded heart rate, cardiac index and arterial blood pressure variables were satisfactorily preserved and cardiovascular function was maintained in both groups. Shivering was not observed in the ZTMe group, but was observed in four of the pigs in the MiKF group. The requirement of TIVA was lower in the ZTMe group. In conclusion, ZTMe had better results than MiKF in areas such as shorter induction time, better intubation scoring results and less adjustment and amount of TIVA required up to six hours of anaesthesia. The results may have been due to a greater depth of anaesthesia achieved with the ZTMe combination at the dose used.

The effectiveness of alprostadil in treating coronary microcirculation dysfunction following ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction in a pig model

Though alprostadil has been reported to improve the impaired microcirculation of patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension, its effectiveness as a treatment for coronary microvasculature dysfunction (CMD) following ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) is unknown. A total of 18 miniature pigs with CMD following STEMI were randomized into three groups that received an intracoronary injection of 5 ml of normal saline, 2 mg of nicorandil or 10 µg of alprostadil immediately after measurement of the index of microcirculatory resistance (IMR) and then an intravenous drip containing 5 ml of normal saline, 2 mg of nicorandil or 10 µg of alprostadil once a day for 6 days. The IMR, cardiac function using ultrasound, infarct areas and heparanase levels in infarct areas were measured and compared between the three groups. The IMR decreased markedly 10 min after alprostadil or nicorandil intracoronary injection (both P<0.05) but not following saline injection (P>0.05). After 7 days, the IMR was substantially lower in the alprostadil and nicorandil groups compared with the saline group (both P<0.05) and the ejection fraction was considerably higher in the alprostadil and nicorandil groups compared with the saline group (both P<0.05). Differences in infarct areas and the relative heparanase expression levels among the 3 groups were similar to the differences in the ejection fraction. No significant differences in the above assessment indexes were identified in the alprostadil and nicorandil groups. Alprostadil infusion improved coronary microcirculation function, reduced the infarct area and limited left ventricular dilatation in a pig coronary microvasculature dysfunction model following STEMI.

Macrocirculatory Parameters and Oxygen Debt Indices in Pigs During Propofol Or Alfaxalone Anesthesia When Subjected to Experimental Stepwise Hemorrhage

Background: Pigs are anesthetized when used for emergency procedures live tissue training (LTT) of civilian and military medical personnel or for experimental purposes, but there is a paucity in the literature regarding anesthesia of pigs for this purpose. Objective(s): The main goals of the study were to compare oxygen debt, macrocirculatory parameters, and time to cardiac arrest between pigs in hemorrhagic shock and anesthetized with propofol-ketamine-dexmedetomidine or alfaxalone-ketamine-dexmedetomidine. Design: A prospective, non-blinded randomized study design was used. Sixteen pigs were randomized in blocks of four to be anesthetized with either propofol-ketamine-dexmedetomidine (n = 8) or alfaxalone-ketamine-dexmedetomidine (n = 8) as a continuous infusion. Interventions: Premedication with ketamine 15 mg kg^-1 and midazolam 1 mg kg^-1 was given i.m. Anesthesia was maintained with propofol 8 mg kg^-1 h^-1 or alfaxalone 5 mg kg^-1 h^-1 combined with ketamine 5 mg kg^-1 h^-1 and dexmedetomidine 4 μg kg^-1 h^-1 i.v. A stepwise, volume-controlled model for hemorrhage was created by exsanguination. Main Outcome Measures: Indices of oxygen debt (lactate, base excess, and oxygen extraction), macrocirculatory (PR, SAP, DAP, MAP, and CI, SVI, and TPR) variables, and time to death was compared between groups. Results: Pigs in the alfaxalone group had significantly higher SAP than pigs given propofol. No difference in other macrocirculatory variables or indices of oxygen debt could be found. A blood loss of 50% of the total blood volume or more was possible in most pigs with both anesthetic regimes. Conclusions: Pigs anesthetized with propofol or alfaxalone combined with ketamine and dexmedetomidine tolerated substantial blood loss.

Inhibition and facilitation of nociceptively evoked muscular activity by fentanyl or dexmedetomidine in isoflurane-anaesthetized pigs

OBJECTIVE

To investigate motor and cardiovascular responses to dexmedetomidine or fentanyl in isoflurane-anaesthetized pigs.

STUDY DESIGN

Experimental, balanced, block randomized, two-group design.

ANIMALS

A group of 16 crossbred pigs, 55 ± 8 days (mean ± standard deviation) old.

METHODS

Deltoid electromyography (EMG) was recorded during isoflurane anaesthesia. Electrical stimulation using 5, 10, 20 and 40 mA of the distal right thoracic limb elicited a nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR), quantified by the area under the curve (AUC) for the simulation intensity versus EMG amplitude response curve. Latency to movement evoked by clamping a claw for maximum 60 seconds was noted. Arterial blood pressure and pulse rate were recorded. Data were sampled at baseline and during dexmedetomidine 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 and 8.0 μg kg^-1 hour^-1 or fentanyl 5, 10, 20, 40, 80 and 160 μg kg^-1 hour^-1 infusions. The influence of infusion rate on NWR AUC and spontaneous EMG was analysed using a mixed model, with p < 5%.

RESULTS

NWR AUC increased at fentanyl 5 μg kg^-1 hour^-1 but decreased at fentanyl 40, 80 and 160 μg kg^-1 hour^-1 and dexmedetomidine 4.0 and 8.0 μg kg^-1 hour^-1. All pigs at fentanyl 80 μg kg^-1 hour^-1, and three pigs at dexmedetomidine 8.0 μg kg^-1 hour^-1 had mechanical latencies greater than 60 seconds. Spontaneous EMG activity increased accompanied by visually evident 'shivering' at fentanyl 5, 10 and 20 μg kg^-1 hour^-1 but decreased at dexmedetomidine 2, 4 and 8 μg kg^-1 hour^-1. Clinically relevant effects of increasing infusion rates on blood pressure or pulse rate were not observed.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

If anaesthetic plane or antinociception is evaluated in pigs, response to claw clamping and NWR will not necessarily give uniform results when comparing drugs. If only one method is used, results should be interpreted cautiously.

Targeted fibre-optical intrabronchial lipopolysaccharide administration in pigs - a methodical refinement for improved accuracy in respiratory research

OBJECTIVE

To establish and evaluate a standardized method of targeted, intrabronchial drug delivery in pigs.

STUDY DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

ANIMALS

A total of 16 German Landrace pigs (Sus scrofa), age range 12‒16 weeks, and weighing 28‒35 kg.

METHODS

The animals were anaesthetized, intubated, and instrumented with extended cardiovascular monitoring. Lung injury was induced by administering via a flexible fibre-optic endoscope using 100 mL saline solution containing either 20 mg of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (E. coli LPS) (n = 8) or no additive (sham, n = 8) into the two distal mainstem bronchi. The animals were monitored for 8 hours and arterial oxygenation, inspiratory pressure and arterial blood pressure were measured repeatedly. Post-mortem, lung tissue was prepared for histologic damage scoring and determination of proinflammatory cytokines Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα). Statistical analyses were performed using inter-group analysis of variance and Student's t tests. Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation. A p value <0.05 was considered significant.

RESULTS

The targeted application of LPS led to significant deterioration of oxygenation consistent with mild-to-moderate acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and hypotension (Horowitz ratio: sham 2 hour, 300 ± 39; LPS 2 hour, 193.7 ± 52; p < 0.001). Histologic analyses identified increased inflammation and oedema in the tissues of the animals in the LPS group IL-6 sham: 6.4 ± 4.4 × 10^-5 pg mL^-1; IL-6 LPS: 2.8 ± 2.4 × 10^-4 pg mL^-1, p = 0.015.

CONCLUSIONS

The targeted application of agents via flexible fibre-optic endoscopy is a valid, reliable method of causing controlled lung damage in a porcine model. The data presented suggest the feasibility and possible advantages of controlled application and could expand the array of techniques used to help understand the critical condition of ARDS. In addition, a targeted approach could help reduce animal numbers used for this purpose.

A comparison of respiratory function in pigs anaesthetised by propofol or alfaxalone in combination with dexmedetomidine and ketamine

BACKGROUND

General anaesthesia in pigs maintained with intravenous drugs such as propofol may cause respiratory depression. Alfaxalone gives less respiratory depression than propofol in some species. The aim of the investigation was to compare respiratory effects of propofol-ketamine-dexmedetomidine and alfaxalone-ketamine-dexmedetomidine in pigs. Sixteen pigs premedicated with ketamine 15 mg/kg and midazolam 1 mg/kg intramuscularly were anaesthetised with propofol or alfaxalone to allow endotracheal intubation, followed by propofol 8 mg/kg/h or alfaxalone 5 mg/kg/h in combination with ketamine 5 mg/kg/h and dexmedetomidine 4 µg/kg/h given as a continuous infusion for 60 min. The pigs breathed spontaneously with an FIO₂ of 0.21. Oxygen saturation (SpO₂), end-tidal CO₂ concentration (PE'CO₂), respiratory rate (f_R) and inspired tidal volume (V_T) were measured, and statistically compared between treatments. If the SpO₂ dropped below 80% or if PE'CO₂ increased above 10.0 kPa, the pigs were recorded as failing to complete the study, and time to failure was statistically compared between treatments.

RESULTS

Alfaxalone treated pigs had significantly higher respiratory rates and lower PE'CO₂ than propofol treated pigs, with a f_R being 7.3 /min higher (P = 0.01) and PE'CO₂ 0.8 kPa lower (P = 0.05). SpO₂ decreased by 0.6% and f_R by 1.0 /min per kg increase in body weight in both treatment groups. Three of eight propofol treated and two of eight alfaxalone treated pigs failed to complete the study, and times to failure were not significantly different between treatments (P = 0.75).

CONCLUSIONS

No major differences in respiratory variables were found when comparing treatments. Respiratory supportive measures must be available when using both protocols.

Differential effects of sevoflurane and propofol on swine cardiac conduction system

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of sevoflurane and propofol on the porcine cardiac conduction system.

STUDY DESIGN

A prospective, comparative study of electrophysiological properties of anaesthetics agents in an experimental porcine model.

ANIMALS

A total of 36 hybrid Landrace-Large White pigs.

METHODS

After premedication with 20 mg kg^-1 of intramuscular ketamine, anaesthesia was induced with 4.5 mg kg^-1propofol intravenously. In 18 consecutive animals, anaesthesia was maintained with propofol (13 mg kg^-1 hour^-1) and in the remaining 18 animals with 2.66% sevoflurane. The femoral artery and vein were canalized for invasive monitoring, analytical blood gas sampling and intracardiac catheter insertion. Following instrumentation and after a period of stabilization, a customary electrophysiological evaluation was performed. We compared the electrophysiology of the sinus and atrioventricular node (AV) node under sevoflurane or propofol anaesthesia, and the effects of both anaesthetics on atrial and ventricular refractoriness.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in sinus node recovery time between sevoflurane and propofol (907 ± 231 versus 753 ± 146 ms, p = 0.02). Sevoflurane in comparison with propofol significantly prolonged specialized AV conduction times, represented by an increased Wenckebach cycle length (272 ± 54 versus 235 ± 40 ms, p = 0.03) and AV nodal refractoriness (327 ± 34 versus 287 ± 30 ms, p = 0.002). In addition, sevoflurane prolonged ventricular refractoriness (298 ± 27 versus 255 ± 38 ms, p = 0.007) and the QT corrected interval (0.50 ± 0.05 versus 0.46 ± 0.09 ms, p = 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Sevoflurane in comparison with propofol, depresses several parameters of sinus and AV nodal function and prolongs the ventricular refractoriness of the porcine cardiac conduction system. These findings should be taken into consideration for the choice of anaesthetic agents in clinical and experimental settings.