Delivery of heterologous protein antigens via hemolysin or autotransporter systems by an attenuated ler mutant of rabbit enteropathogenic Escherichia coli

An Engineered Outer Membrane-Defective Escherichia coli Secreting Protective Antigens against Streptococcus suis via the Twin-Arginine Translocation Pathway as a Vaccine

Live bacterial vector vaccines are one of the most promising vaccine types and have the advantages of low cost, flexibility, and good safety. Meanwhile, protein secretion systems have been reported as useful tools to facilitate the release of heterologous antigen proteins from bacterial vectors. The twin-arginine translocation (Tat) system is an important protein export system that transports fully folded proteins in a signal peptide-dependent manner. In this study, we constructed a live vector vaccine using an engineered commensal Escherichia coli strain in which amiA and amiC genes were deleted, resulting in a leaky outer membrane that allows the release of periplasmic proteins to the extracellular environment. The protective antigen proteins SLY, enolase, and Sbp against Streptococcus suis were targeted to the Tat pathway by fusing a Tat signal peptide. Our results showed that by exploiting the Tat pathway and the outer membrane-defective E. coli strain, the antigen proteins were successfully secreted. The strains secreting the antigen proteins were used to vaccinate mice. After S. suis challenge, the vaccinated group showed significantly higher survival and milder clinical symptoms compared with the vector group. Further analysis showed that the mice in the vaccinated group had lower burdens of bacteria load and slighter pathological changes. Our study reports a novel live bacterial vector vaccine that uses the Tat system and provides a new alternative for developing S. suis vaccine.

Live-Attenuated Bacterial Vectors for Delivery of Mucosal Vaccines, DNA Vaccines, and Cancer Immunotherapy

Vaccines save millions of lives each year from various life-threatening infectious diseases, and there are more than 20 vaccines currently licensed for human use worldwide. Moreover, in recent decades immunotherapy has become the mainstream therapy, which highlights the tremendous potential of immune response mediators, including vaccines for prevention and treatment of various forms of cancer. However, despite the tremendous advances in microbiology and immunology, there are several vaccine preventable diseases which still lack effective vaccines. Classically, weakened forms (attenuated) of pathogenic microbes were used as vaccines. Although the attenuated microbes induce effective immune response, a significant risk of reversion to pathogenic forms remains. While in the twenty-first century, with the advent of genetic engineering, microbes can be tailored with desired properties.

In this review, I have focused on the use of genetically modified bacteria for the delivery of vaccine antigens. More specifically, the live-attenuated bacteria, derived from pathogenic bacteria, possess many features that make them highly suitable vectors for the delivery of vaccine antigens. Bacteria can theoretically express any heterologous gene or can deliver mammalian expression vectors harboring vaccine antigens (DNA vaccines). These properties of live-attenuated microbes are being harnessed to make vaccines against several infectious and noninfectious diseases. In this regard, I have described the desired features of live-attenuated bacterial vectors and the mechanisms of immune responses manifested by live-attenuated bacterial vectors. Interestingly anaerobic bacteria are naturally attracted to tumors, which make them suitable vehicles to deliver tumor-associated antigens thus I have discussed important studies investigating the role of bacterial vectors in immunotherapy. Finally, I have provided important discussion on novel approaches for improvement and tailoring of live-attenuated bacterial vectors for the generation of desired immune responses.

Antigen Localization Influences the Magnitude and Kinetics of Endogenous Adaptive Immune Response to Recombinant Salmonella Vaccines

The use of recombinant attenuated Salmonella vaccine (RASV) strains is a promising strategy for presenting heterologous antigens to the mammalian immune system to induce both cellular and humoral immune responses. However, studies on RASV development differ on where heterologous antigens are expressed and localized within the bacterium, and it is unclear how antigen localization modulates the immune response. Previously, we exploited the plasmid-encoded toxin (Pet) autotransporter system for accumulation of heterologous antigens in cell culture supernatant. In the present study, this Pet system was used to express early secretory antigen 6 (ESAT-6), an immunodominant and diagnostic antigen from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium strain SL3261. Three strains were generated, whereby ESAT-6 was expressed as a cytoplasmic (SL3261/cyto), surface-bound (SL3261/surf), or secreted (SL3261/sec) antigen. Using these RASVs, the relationship between antigen localization and immunogenicity in infected C57BL/6 mice was systematically examined. Using purified antigen and specific tetramers, we showed that mice infected with the SL3261/surf or SL3261/sec strain generated large numbers of Th1 CD4⁺ ESAT-6⁺ splenic T cells compared to those of mice infected with SL3261/cyto. While all mice showed ESAT-6-specific antibody responses when infected with SL3261/surf or SL3261/sec, peak total serum IgG antibody titers were reached more rapidly in mice that received SL3261/sec. Thus, how antigen is localized after production within bacteria has a more marked effect on the antibody response than on the CD4⁺ T cell response, which might influence the chosen strategy to localize recombinant antigen in RASVs.

Secretion of the Shiga toxin B subunit (Stx1B) via an autotransporter protein optimizes the protective immune response to the antigen expressed in an attenuated E. coli (rEPEC E22Δler) vaccine strain

We previously developed attenuated rabbit enteropathogenic E. coli (rEPEC) strains which are effective oral vaccines against their parent pathogens by deleting ler, a global regulator of virulence genes. To use these strains as orally administered vectors to deliver other antigens we incorporated the B subunit of shiga-like toxin 1(Stx1) into the passenger domain of the autotransporter EspP expressed on a plasmid. Native EspP enters the periplasm where its passenger domain is exported to the bacterial surface through an outer membrane channel formed by its translocator domain, then cleaved and secreted. Since antigen localization may determine immunogenicity, we engineered derivatives of EspP expressing Stx1B- passenger domain fusions: 1. in cytoplasm 2. in periplasm, 3. surface-attached or 4. secreted. To determine which construct was most immunogenic, rabbits were immunized with attenuated O103 E. coli strain (E22 Δler) alone or expressing Stx1B in each of the above four cellular locations. IgG responses to Stx1B, and toxin-neutralizing antibodies were measured. Animals were challenged with a virulent rabbit Enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) strain of a different serogroup (O15) than the vaccine strain expressing Stx1 (RDEC-H19) and their clinical course observed. IgG responses to Stx1B subunit were induced in all animals vaccinated with the strain secreting Stx1B, in some vaccinated with surface-expressed Stx1B, but in not animals immunized with periplasmic or cytoplasmic Stx1B. Robust protection was observed only in the group immunized with the vaccine secreting Stx1B. Taken together, our data suggest that secretion of Stx1B, or other antigens, via an autotransporter, may maximize the protective response to live attenuated oral vaccine strains.

Antigen Delivery System II

This chapter reviews papers mostly written since 2005 that report results using live attenuated bacterial vectors to deliver after administration through mucosal surfaces, protective antigens, and DNA vaccines, encoding protective antigens to induce immune responses and/or protective immunity to pathogens that colonize on or invade through mucosal surfaces. Papers that report use of such vaccine vector systems for parenteral vaccination or to deal with nonmucosal pathogens or do not address induction of mucosal antibody and/or cellular immune responses are not reviewed.

Pathogenesis of human enterovirulent bacteria: lessons from cultured, fully differentiated human colon cancer cell lines

Hosts are protected from attack by potentially harmful enteric microorganisms, viruses, and parasites by the polarized fully differentiated epithelial cells that make up the epithelium, providing a physical and functional barrier. Enterovirulent bacteria interact with the epithelial polarized cells lining the intestinal barrier, and some invade the cells. A better understanding of the cross talk between enterovirulent bacteria and the polarized intestinal cells has resulted in the identification of essential enterovirulent bacterial structures and virulence gene products playing pivotal roles in pathogenesis. Cultured animal cell lines and cultured human nonintestinal, undifferentiated epithelial cells have been extensively used for understanding the mechanisms by which some human enterovirulent bacteria induce intestinal disorders. Human colon carcinoma cell lines which are able to express in culture the functional and structural characteristics of mature enterocytes and goblet cells have been established, mimicking structurally and functionally an intestinal epithelial barrier. Moreover, Caco-2-derived M-like cells have been established, mimicking the bacterial capture property of M cells of Peyer's patches. This review intends to analyze the cellular and molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis of human enterovirulent bacteria observed in infected cultured human colon carcinoma enterocyte-like HT-29 subpopulations, enterocyte-like Caco-2 and clone cells, the colonic T84 cell line, HT-29 mucus-secreting cell subpopulations, and Caco-2-derived M-like cells, including cell association, cell entry, intracellular lifestyle, structural lesions at the brush border, functional lesions in enterocytes and goblet cells, functional and structural lesions at the junctional domain, and host cellular defense responses.

Treatment and prevention of enterohemorrhagicEscherichia coliinfection and hemolytic uremic syndrome

Over a quarter century after the discovery of verocytotoxin and the first report by Karmali and colleagues of cases of postdiarrheal hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) caused by verotoxigenic Escherichia coli (VTEC), otherwise known as Shiga-toxigenic E. coli (STEC), successful treatment of these infections has remained elusive. This is because the pathological insult producing the clinical picture of HUS occurs early in the disease process and curtails quickly, making treatment intervention a largely vain hope. Nevertheless, understanding of the pathogenesis of HUS has expanded and, as a result, we can expect a future breakthrough in the treatment of this life-threatening condition. This review examines the pathogenesis of HUS and explores targets for treatment, including the reasons why certain therapies have failed and why future therapies could be successful. This review also examines the status of vaccine development in prevention of VTEC/STEC disease.

Pushing the Bacterial Envelope

Over the past three decades, a powerful array of techniques has been developed for expressing heterologous proteins and saccharides on the surface of bacteria. Surface-engineered bacteria, in turn, have proven useful in a variety of settings, including high-throughput screening, biofuel production, and vaccinology. In this chapter, we provide a comprehensive review of methods for displaying polypeptides and sugars on the bacterial cell surface, and discuss the many innovative applications these methods have found to date. While already an important biotechnological tool, we believe bacterial surface display may be further improved through integration with emerging methodology in other fields, such as protein engineering and synthetic chemistry. Ultimately, we envision bacterial display becoming a multidisciplinary platform with the potential to transform basic and applied research in bacteriology, biotechnology, and biomedicine.

Autotransporter-based cell surface display in Gram-negative bacteria

Cell surface display of proteins can be used for several biotechnological applications such as the screening of protein libraries, whole cell biocatalysis and live vaccine development. Amongst all secretion systems and surface appendages of Gram-negative bacteria, the autotransporter secretion pathway holds great potential for surface display because of its modular structure and apparent simplicity. Autotransporters are polypeptides made up of an N-terminal signal peptide, a secreted or surface-displayed passenger domain and a membrane-anchored C-terminal translocation unit. Genetic replacement of the passenger domain allows for the surface display of heterologous passengers. An autotransporter-based surface expression module essentially consists of an application-dependent promoter system, a signal peptide, a passenger domain of interest and the autotransporter translocation unit. The passenger domain needs to be compatible with surface translocation although till now no general rules have been determined to test this compatibility. The autotransporter technology for surface display of heterologous passenger domains is critically discussed for various applications.

A prime-boost vaccination of mice with attenuated Salmonella expressing a 30-mer peptide from the Trichinella spiralis gp43 antigen

Protection against Trichinella infections has been achieved using various parasite antigens and adjuvants. Recently, we reported that immunization of mice with an attenuated Salmonella strain displaying a 30-mer peptide (residues 210-239) from the Trichinella spiralis gp43 antigen using the ShdA autotransporter induced partial protection against T. spiralis infection. To improve the efficacy of vaccination, we used the MisL autotransporter system to display the Ts30mer peptide on the surface of Salmonella enterica ser. Typhimurium in combination with a prime-boost vaccination strategy. This vector and immunization regimen induced superior protection against T. spiralis when compared to our previously reported approach. Data presented herein showed a significant reduction in adult worm and muscle larvae burdens, high IgG titers, and increased production of intestinal mucus with entrapped adult worms. This prime-boost vaccination scheme is a suitable strategy to elicit enhanced protective immunity against T. spiralis.

Extracellular overexpression of recombinant Thermobifida fusca cutinase by alpha-hemolysin secretion system in E. coli BL21(DE3)

Background

Extracellular expression of proteins has an absolute advantage in a large-scale industrial production. In our previous study, Thermobifida fusca cutinase, an enzyme mainly utilized in textile industry, was expressed via type II secretory system in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3), and it was found that parts of the expressed protein was accumulated in the periplasmic space. Due to the fact that alpha-hemolysin secretion system can export target proteins directly from cytoplasm across both cell membrane of E. coli to the culture medium, thus in the present study we investigated the expression of cutinase using this alpha-hemolysin secretion system.

Results

T. fusca cutinase was fused with the specific signal peptide of alpha-hemolysin scretion system and expressed in E. coli BL21(DE3). In addition, HlyB and HlyD, strain-specific translocation components of alpha-hemolysin secretion system, were coexpressed to facilitate the enzyme expression. The cultivation of this engineered cell showed that cutinase activity in the culture medium reached 334 U/ml, which is 2.5 times that from type II secretion pathway under the same culture condition. The recombinant cutinase was further purified. Biochemical characterization of purified enzyme, which had an α-hemolysin secretion pathway signal peptide attached, had substrate specificity, pH and temperature profile, as well as application capability in bioscouring similar to that of wild-type cutinase.

Conclusions

In the present study, T. fusca cutinase was successfully secreted to the culture media by α-hemolysin secretion system. This is the first report of cutinase being efficiently secreted by this pathway. Due to the limited cases of successful expression of industrial enzyme by E. coli α-hemolysin secretion system, our study further explored the utilization of this pathway in industrial enzymes.

Extracellular recombinant protein production from Escherichia coli

Escherichia coli is the most commonly used host for recombinant protein production and metabolic engineering. Extracellular production of enzymes and proteins is advantageous as it could greatly reduce the complexity of a bioprocess and improve product quality. Extracellular production of proteins is necessary for metabolic engineering applications in which substrates are polymers such as lignocelluloses or xenobiotics since adequate uptake of these substrates is often an issue. The dogma that E. coli secretes no protein has been challenged by the recognition of both its natural ability to secrete protein in common laboratory strains and increased ability to secrete proteins in engineered cells. The very existence of this review dedicated to extracellular production is a testimony for outstanding achievements made collectively by the community in this regard. Four strategies have emerged to engineer E. coli cells to secrete recombinant proteins. In some cases, impressive secretion levels, several grams per liter, were reached. This secretion level is on par with other eukaryotic expression systems. Amid the optimism, it is important to recognize that significant challenges remain, especially when considering the success cannot be predicted a priori and involves much trials and errors. This review provides an overview of recent developments in engineering E. coli for extracellular production of recombinant proteins and an analysis of pros and cons of each strategy.

Strategies for successful recombinant expression of disulfide bond-dependent proteins in Escherichia coli

Bacteria are simple and cost effective hosts for producing recombinant proteins. However, their physiological features may limit their use for obtaining in native form proteins of some specific structural classes, such as for instance polypeptides that undergo extensive post-translational modifications. To some extent, also the production of proteins that depending on disulfide bridges for their stability has been considered difficult in E. coli.

Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms keep their cytoplasm reduced and, consequently, disulfide bond formation is impaired in this subcellular compartment. Disulfide bridges can stabilize protein structure and are often present in high abundance in secreted proteins. In eukaryotic cells such bonds are formed in the oxidizing environment of endoplasmic reticulum during the export process. Bacteria do not possess a similar specialized subcellular compartment, but they have both export systems and enzymatic activities aimed at the formation and at the quality control of disulfide bonds in the oxidizing periplasm.

This article reviews the available strategies for exploiting the physiological mechanisms of bactera to produce properly folded disulfide-bonded proteins.

The autodisplay story, from discovery to biotechnical and biomedical applications

Among the pathways used by gram-negative bacteria for protein secretion, the autotransporter pathway represents a solution of impressive simplicity. Proteins are transported, independent of their nature as recombinant or native passengers, as long as the coding nucleotide sequence is inserted in frame between those of an N-terminal signal peptide and a C-terminal domain, referred to as the beta-barrel of the outer membrane translocation unit. The immunoglobulin A1 (IgA1) protease from Neisseria gonorrhoeae was the first identified member of the autotransporter family of secreted proteins. The IgA1 protease was employed in initial experiments investigating autotransporter-mediated surface display of recombinant proteins and to investigate structural and functional requirements. Various other autotransporter proteins have since been described, and the autodisplay system was developed on the basis of the natural Escherichia coli autotransporter protein AIDA-I (adhesin involved in diffuse adherence). Autodisplay has been used for the surface display of random peptide libraries to successfully screen for novel enzyme inhibitors. The autodisplay system was also used for the surface display of functional enzymes, including esterases, oxidoreductases, and electron transfer proteins. Whole E. coli cells displaying enzymes have been utilized to efficiently synthesize industrially important rare organic compounds with specific chirality. Autodisplay of epitopes on the surface of attenuated Salmonella carriers has also provided a novel way to induce immune protection after oral vaccination. This review summarizes the structural and functional features of the autodisplay system, illustrating its discovery and most recent applications. Autodisplay facilitates the export of more than 100,000 recombinant molecules per single cell and permits the oligomerization of subunits on the cell surface as well as the incorporation of inorganic prosthetic groups after transport of apoproteins onto the bacterial surface without disturbing bacterial integrity or viability. We discuss future biotechnical and biomedical applications in the light of these achievements.

Protection against Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli infection by transcutaneous immunization with Shiga toxin subunit B

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) strains are important human food-borne pathogens. EHEC strains elaborate potent Shiga toxins (Stx1, and/or Stx2) implicated in the development of hemorrhagic colitis (HC) or hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS). In this report, we evaluated the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of Stx1 subunit B (StxB1) administered by transcutaneous immunization (TCI). Three groups of Dutch Belted rabbits received patches containing StxB1, StxB1 in combination with Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin (LT), or LT alone. An additional group of naïve rabbits served as controls. The protective efficacy following TCI with StxB1 was assessed by challenging rabbits with a virulent Stx1-producing strain, RDEC-H19A, capable of inducing HC and HUS in rabbits. Antibodies specific to StxB1 from serum and bile samples were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and toxin neutralization test. Rabbits immunized with StxB1 demonstrated improved weight gain and reduced Stx-induced histopathology. Rabbits receiving StxB or StxB1/LT showed a significant increase in serum immunoglobulin G titers specific to StxB1 as well as toxin neutralization titers. These data demonstrated that the StxB delivered by TCI could induce significant systemic immune responses. Thus, Stx subunit B vaccine delivered by a patch for a high-risk population may be a practical approach to prevent (and/or reduce) Stx-induced pathology.

Highly attenuated Bordetella pertussis strain BPZE1 as a potential live vehicle for delivery of heterologous vaccine candidates

Bordetella pertussis, the causative agent of whooping cough, is a promising and attractive candidate for vaccine delivery via the nasal route, provided that suitable attenuation of this pathogen has been obtained. Recently, the highly attenuated B. pertussis BPZE1 strain has been described as a potential live pertussis vaccine for humans. We investigated here the use of BPZE1 as a live vehicle for heterologous vaccine candidates. Previous studies have reported the filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA), a major B. pertussis adhesin, as a carrier to express foreign antigens in B. pertussis. In this study, we also examined the BrkA autotransporter as a surface display system. Three copies of the neutralizing peptide SP70 from enterovirus 71 (EV71) were fused to FHA or in the passenger domain of BrkA, and each chimera was expressed in BPZE1. The FHA-(SP70)3 and BrkA-(SP70)3 chimeras were successfully secreted and exposed at the bacterial surface, respectively. Nasal administration of the live recombinant strains triggered a strong and sustained systemic anti-SP70 antibody response in mice, although the titers and neutralizing activities against EV71 were significantly higher in the sera of mice immunized with the BrkA-(SP70)3-producing strain. These data indicate that the highly attenuated BPZE1 strain is a potential candidate for vaccine delivery via the nasal route with the BrkA autotransporter as an alternative to FHA for the presentation of the heterologous vaccine antigens.

MarT activates expression of the MisL autotransporter protein of Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium

MisL is a Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium fibronectin binding protein whose expression is induced during infection of mice. T-POP transposon mutagenesis identified marT as a positive regulatory element controlling expression of a misL::lacZYA transcriptional fusion. Gel shift analysis identified MarT as a transcriptional activator of the misL promoter.

Surface display of proteins by gram-negative bacterial autotransporters

Expressing proteins of interest as fusions to proteins of the bacterial envelope is a powerful technique with many biotechnological and medical applications. Autotransporters have recently emerged as a good tool for bacterial surface display. These proteins are composed of an N-terminal signal peptide, followed by a passenger domain and a translocator domain that mediates the outer membrane translocation of the passenger. The natural passenger domain of autotransporters can be replaced by heterologous proteins that become displayed at the bacterial surface by the translocator domain. The simplicity and versatility of this system has made it very attractive and it has been used to display functional enzymes, vaccine antigens as well as polypeptides libraries. The recent advances in the study of the translocation mechanism of autotransporters have raised several controversial issues with implications for their use as display systems. These issues include the requirement for the displayed polypeptides to remain in a translocation-competent state in the periplasm, the requirement for specific signal sequences and "autochaperone" domains, and the influence of the genetic background of the expression host strain. It is therefore important to better understand the mechanism of translocation of autotransporters in order to employ them to their full potential. This review will focus on the recent advances in the study of the translocation mechanism of autotransporters and describe practical considerations regarding their use for bacterial surface display.