Effect of promoter strength on protein expression and immunogenicity of an HSV-1 amplicon vector encoding HIV-1 Gag

The Quest for Immunity: Exploring Human Herpesviruses as Vaccine Vectors

Herpesviruses are large DNA viruses that have long been used as powerful gene therapy tools. In recent years, the ability of herpesviruses to stimulate both innate and adaptive immune responses has led to their transition to various applications as vaccine vectors. This vaccinology branch is growing at an unprecedented and accelerated rate. To date, human herpesvirus-based vectors have been used in vaccines to combat a variety of infectious agents, including the Ebola virus, foot and mouth disease virus, and human immunodeficiency viruses. Additionally, these vectors are being tested as potential vaccines for cancer-associated antigens. Thanks to advances in recombinant DNA technology, immunology, and genomics, numerous steps in vaccine development have been greatly improved. A better understanding of herpesvirus biology and the interactions between these viruses and the host cells will undoubtedly foster the use of herpesvirus-based vaccine vectors in clinical settings. To overcome the existing drawbacks of these vectors, ongoing research is needed to further advance our knowledge of herpesvirus biology and to develop safer and more effective vaccine vectors. Advanced molecular virology and cell biology techniques must be used to better understand the mechanisms by which herpesviruses manipulate host cells and how viral gene expression is regulated during infection. In this review, we cover the underlying molecular structure of herpesviruses and the strategies used to engineer their genomes to optimize capacity and efficacy as vaccine vectors. Also, we assess the available data on the successful application of herpesvirus-based vaccines for combating diseases such as viral infections and the potential drawbacks and alternative approaches to surmount them.

Response to HIV-1 gp160-carrying recombinant virus HSV-1 and HIV-1 VLP combined vaccine in BALB/c mice

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) induced AIDS causes a large number of infections and deaths worldwide every year, still no vaccines are available to prevent infection. Recombinant herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) vector-based vaccines coding the target proteins of other pathogens have been widely used for disease control. Here, a recombinant virus with HIV-1 gp160 gene integration into the internal reverse (IR) region-deleted HSV-1 vector (HSV-BAC), was obtained by bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) technology, and its immunogenicity investigated in BALB/c mice. The result showed similar replication ability of the HSV-BAC-based recombinant virus and wild type. Furthermore, humoral and cellular immune response showed superiority of intraperitoneal (IP) administration, compared to intranasally (IN), subcutaneous (SC) and intramuscularly (IM), that evidenced by production of significant antibody and T cell responses. More importantly, in a prime-boost combination study murine model, the recombinant viruses prime followed by HIV-1 VLP boost induced stronger and broader immune responses than single virus or protein vaccination in a similar vaccination regimen. Antibody production was sufficient with huge potential for viral clearance, along with efficient T-cell activation, which were evaluated by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and flow cytometry (FC). Overall, these findings expose the value of combining different vaccine vectors and modalities to improve immunogenicity and breadth against different HIV-1 antigens.

Quantitative design of regulatory elements based on high-precision strength prediction using artificial neural network

Accurate and controllable regulatory elements such as promoters and ribosome binding sites (RBSs) are indispensable tools to quantitatively regulate gene expression for rational pathway engineering. Therefore, de novo designing regulatory elements is brought back to the forefront of synthetic biology research. Here we developed a quantitative design method for regulatory elements based on strength prediction using artificial neural network (ANN). One hundred mutated Trc promoter & RBS sequences, which were finely characterized with a strength distribution from 0 to 3.559 (relative to the strength of the original sequence which was defined as 1), were used for model training and test. A precise strength prediction model, NET90_19_576, was finally constructed with high regression correlation coefficients of 0.98 for both model training and test. Sixteen artificial elements were in silico designed using this model. All of them were proved to have good consistency between the measured strength and our desired strength. The functional reliability of the designed elements was validated in two different genetic contexts. The designed parts were successfully utilized to improve the expression of BmK1 peptide toxin and fine-tune deoxy-xylulose phosphate pathway in Escherichia coli. Our results demonstrate that the methodology based on ANN model can de novo and quantitatively design regulatory elements with desired strengths, which are of great importance for synthetic biology applications.

HSV-1 amplicon vectors launch the production of heterologous rotavirus-like particles and induce rotavirus-specific immune responses in mice

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are promising vaccine candidates because they represent viral antigens in the authentic conformation of the virion and are therefore readily recognized by the immune system. As VLPs do not contain genetic material they are safer than attenuated virus vaccines. In this study, herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) amplicon vectors were constructed to coexpress the rotavirus (RV) structural genes VP2, VP6, and VP7 and were used as platforms to launch the production of RV-like particles (RVLPs) in vector-infected mammalian cells. Despite the observed splicing of VP6 RNA, full-length VP6 protein and RVLPs were efficiently produced. Intramuscular injection of mice with the amplicon vectors as a two-dose regimen without adjuvants resulted in RV-specific humoral immune responses and, most importantly, immunized mice were partially protected at the mucosal level from challenge with live wild-type (wt) RV. This work provides proof of principle for the application of HSV-1 amplicon vectors that mediate the efficient production of heterologous VLPs as genetic vaccines.

Robust antigen-specific humoral immune responses to sublingually delivered adenoviral vectors encoding HIV-1 Env: association with mucoadhesion and efficient penetration of the sublingual barrier

The efficient induction of virus-specific mucosal antibodies is an important unmet objective in Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type-1 (HIV-1) vaccine research. One promising approach is sublingual (SL) immunization. We examined the effectiveness of SL delivery of two different viral vectors: (i) a recombinant adenovirus (rAd5), and (ii) a Herpes Simplex Virus Type-1 amplicon vector (HSV-1). Initial in vitro videomicroscopy experiments showed that rAd5 particles were trapped in saliva (i.e., that Ad5 was mucoadhesive) - unlike HSV-1 virions, which migrated freely in both saliva and water. In vivo imaging studies in mice revealed that only the rAd5 vector efficiently transduced the SL epithelium. Consistent with this, SL delivery of an rAd5 encoding HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env) resulted in robust antigen-specific antibody responses in plasma and in vaginal washes, whereas SL delivery of a HSV-1 amplicon vector encoding HIV-1 Env failed to elicit Env-specific antibodies. In contrast, both vectors elicited equivalent humoral responses following intramuscular (IM) delivery. Finally, SL delivery of the rAd5:Env vector resulted in elevated levels of Env-specific serum IgA, and vaginal IgA and IgG, when compared to IM delivery of the same vector. These results findings shed light on vector properties (mucoadhesion, penetration of the sublingual barrier) which may be important for the induction of potent humoral immune responses following sublingual vector administration. Our data also show that SL delivery of an Env-encoding rAd5 vector can elicit a potent antigen-specific mucosal antibody response in the absence of adjuvant. Overall, these findings support the further exploration of the SL delivery route for HIV-1 vaccine delivery.

CD4+ T cell effects on CD8+ T cell location defined using bioluminescence

T lymphocytes of the CD8+ class are critical in delivering cytotoxic function and in controlling viral and intracellular infections. These cells are “helped” by T lymphocytes of the CD4+ class, which facilitate their activation, clonal expansion, full differentiation and the persistence of memory. In this study we investigated the impact of CD4+ T cells on the location of CD8+ T cells, using antibody-mediated CD4+ T cell depletion and imaging the antigen-driven redistribution of bioluminescent CD8+ T cells in living mice. We documented that CD4+ T cells influence the biodistribution of CD8+ T cells, favoring their localization to abdominal lymph nodes. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that this was associated with an increase in the expression of specific integrins. The presence of CD4+ T cells at the time of initial CD8+ T cell activation also influences their biodistribution in the memory phase. Based on these results, we propose the model that one of the functions of CD4+ T cell “help” is to program the homing potential of CD8+ T cells.

Transgenic Plasmodium that expresses HIV-1 Gag elicits immunity and protects mice against vaccinia virus-gag and malarial parasites

Malaria and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection overlap in many regions of the world. Our goal was to determine the feasibility of developing transgenic Plasmodium berghei that expresses HIV-1 Gag, PbGAG, as a conceptual bivalent vaccine against both HIV-1 infection and malaria. Immunization of mice with PbGAG induced specific responses to the HIV-1 Gag. Importantly, mice vaccinated with PbGAG were significantly protected from challenge with vaccinia virus-gag (VV-gag) with an average 30-fold reduction in titer (P<0.05). In addition, mice immunized with PbGAG developed Plasmodium-specific immune responses and the immunized animals were protected from challenges with blood-stage P. berghei NK65 and Plasmodium yoelii 17XL. We demonstrated a novel vaccination strategy that uses a live transgenic protozoan parasite-based bivalent vaccine to immunize mice and confer significant levels of protection against VV-gag and malarial parasite challenges. These observations have important implications for the development of a new form of bivalent vaccine against both HIV-1 and malaria.

Bioinformatics in new generation flavivirus vaccines

Flavivirus infections are the most prevalent arthropod-borne infections world wide, often causing severe disease especially among children, the elderly, and the immunocompromised. In the absence of effective antiviral treatment, prevention through vaccination would greatly reduce morbidity and mortality associated with flavivirus infections. Despite the success of the empirically developed vaccines against yellow fever virus, Japanese encephalitis virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus, there is an increasing need for a more rational design and development of safe and effective vaccines. Several bioinformatic tools are available to support such rational vaccine design. In doing so, several parameters have to be taken into account, such as safety for the target population, overall immunogenicity of the candidate vaccine, and efficacy and longevity of the immune responses triggered. Examples of how bio-informatics is applied to assist in the rational design and improvements of vaccines, particularly flavivirus vaccines, are presented and discussed.

Coexpression of GM-CSF and antigen in DNA prime-adenoviral vector boost immunization enhances polyfunctional CD8+ T cell responses, whereas expression of GM-CSF antigen fusion protein induces autoimmunity

Background

Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) has shown promising results as a cytokine adjuvant for antiviral vaccines and in various models of tumor gene therapy. To explore whether the targeting of antigens to GM-CSF receptors on antigen-presenting cells enhances antigen-specific CD8 T-cell responses, fusion proteins of GM-CSF and ovalbumin (OVA) were expressed by DNA and adenoviral vector vaccines. In addition, bicistronic vectors allowing independent expression of the antigen and the cytokine were tested in parallel.

Results

In vitro, the GM-CSF ovalbumin fusion protein (GM-OVA) led to the better stimulation of OVA-specific CD8+ T cells by antigen-presenting cells than OVA and GM-CSF given as two separate proteins. However, prime-boost immunizations of mice with DNA and adenoviral vector vaccines encoding GM-OVA suppressed CD8+ T-cell responses to OVA. OVA-specific IgG2a antibody levels were also reduced, while the IgG1 antibody response was enhanced. Suppression of CD8+ T cell responses by GM-OVA vaccines was associated with the induction of neutralizing antibodies to GM-CSF. In contrast, the coexpression of GM-CSF and antigens in DNA prime adenoviral boost immunizations led to a striking expansion of polyfunctional OVA-specific CD8+ T cells without the induction of autoantibodies.

Conclusion

The induction of autoantibodies suggests a general note of caution regarding the use of highly immunogenic viral vector vaccines encoding fusion proteins between antigens and host proteins. In contrast, the expansion of polyfunctional OVA-specific CD8+ T cells after immunizations with bicistronic vectors further support a potential application of GM-CSF as an adjuvant for heterologous prime-boost regimens with genetic vaccines. Since DNA prime adenoviral vector boost regimenes are presently considered as one of the most efficient ways to induce CD8+ T cell responses in mice, non-human primates and humans, further enhancement of this response by GM-CSF is a striking observation.

HSV-1 amplicon vectors elicit polyfunctional T cell responses to HIV-1 Env, and strongly boost responses to an adenovirus prime

HSV-1 amplicon vectors elicit strong T-cell responses to encoded antigens but the qualitative nature of these responses is poorly understood. Antigen-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell responses to amplicon and adenovirus (rAd5) vectors encoding HIV-1 gp120 were assessed following immunization of mice, by performing intracellular cytokine staining for IFNgamma, IL2 and TNFalpha, following stimulation of splenocytes with a HIV-1 Env peptide pool. The quality of the primary T-cell response to amplicon and rAd5 vectors was strikingly similar, but there were qualitative differences in responses to amplicon vectors that incorporated different promoters upstream of gp120 - suggesting that promoters can significantly influence immune response quality. When prime-boost combinations were studied, a rAd5 prime and amplicon boost elicited the highest T-cell response. Furthermore, protocols that incorporated a rAd5 prime consistently elicited a greater proportion of polyfunctional CD4(+) T-cells-regardless of boost. This suggests that initial priming can shape immune response quality after a boost. Overall, these findings provide insight into effective vector combinations for HIV-1 vaccine development.

HSV-1 amplicon vectors: a promising and versatile tool for gene delivery

Amplicons are defective and non-integrative vectors derived from herpes simplex virus type 1. They carry no virus genes in the vector genome and are, therefore, not toxic to the infected cells or pathogenic for the transduced organisms, making these vectors safe. In addition, the large transgenic capacity of amplicons, which allow delivery of < or = 150 Kbp of foreign DNA, make these vectors one of the most powerful, interesting and versatile gene delivery platforms. Here, the authors present recent technological developments that have significantly improved and extended the use of amplicons, both in cultured cells and in living organisms. In addition, this review illustrates the many possible applications that are presently being developed with amplicons and discuss the many difficulties still pending to be solved in order to achieve stable and physiologically regulated transgenic expression.

HIV-1(89.6) Gag expressed from a replication competent HSV-1 vector elicits persistent cellular immune responses in mice

We have constructed a replication competent, gamma(1)34.5-deleted herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) vector (J200) that expresses the gag gene from human immunodeficiency virus type-1, primary isolate 89.6 (HIV-1(89.6)), as a candidate vaccine for HIV-1. J200 replicates in vitro, resulting in abundant Gag protein production and accumulation in the extracellular media. Immunization of Balb/c mice with a single intraperitoneal injection of J200 elicited strong Gag-specific CD8 responses, as measured by intracellular IFN-gamma staining and flow cytometry analysis. Responses were highest between 6 weeks and 4 months, but persisted at 9 months post-immunization, the last time-point evaluated. These data highlight the potential utility of neuroattenuated, replication competent HSV-1 vectors for delivery of HIV-1 immunogens.