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Kerepesi C, Bakács T, Szabados T. MiStImm: an agent-based simulation tool to study the self-nonself discrimination of the adaptive immune response. Theor Biol Med Model 2019; 16:9. [PMID: 31046789 PMCID: PMC6498635 DOI: 10.1186/s12976-019-0105-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is an increasing need for complex computational models to perform in silico experiments as an adjunct to in vitro and in vivo experiments in immunology. We introduce Microscopic Stochastic Immune System Simulator (MiStImm), an agent-based simulation tool, that is designed to study the self-nonself discrimination of the adaptive immune system. MiStImm can simulate some components of the humoral adaptive immune response, including T cells, B cells, antibodies, danger signals, interleukins, self cells, foreign antigens, and the interactions among them. The simulation starts after conception and progresses step by step (in time) driven by random simulation events. We also have provided tools to visualize and analyze the output of the simulation program. RESULTS As the first application of MiStImm, we simulated two different immune models, and then we compared performances of them in the mean of self-nonself discrimination. The first model is a so-called conventional immune model, and the second model is based on our earlier T-cell model, called "one-signal model", which is developed to resolve three important paradoxes of immunology. Our new T-cell model postulates that a dynamic steady state coupled system is formed through low-affinity complementary TCR-MHC interactions between T cells and host cells. The new model implies that a significant fraction of the naive polyclonal T cells is recruited into the first line of defense against an infection. Simulation experiments using MiStImm have shown that the computational realization of the new model shows real patterns. For example, the new model develops immune memory and it does not develop autoimmune reaction despite the hypothesized, enhanced TCR-MHC interaction between T cells and self cells. Simulations also demonstrated that our new model gives better results to overcome a critical primary infection answering the paradox "how can a tiny fraction of human genome effectively compete with a vastly larger pool of mutating pathogen DNA?" CONCLUSION The outcomes of our in silico experiments, presented here, are supported by numerous clinical trial observations from the field of immunotherapy. We hope that our results will encourage investigations to make in vitro and in vivo experiments clarifying questions about self-nonself discrimination of the adaptive immune system. We also hope that MiStImm or some concept in it will be useful to other researchers who want to implement or compare other immune models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Csaba Kerepesi
- Institute for Computer Science and Control, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Kende u 13-17, Budapest, 1111, Hungary.
| | - Tibor Bakács
- Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Reáltanoda u 13-15, Budapest, 1053, Hungary
| | - Tamás Szabados
- Department of Stochastics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Müegyetem rkp 3, Budapest, 1521, Hungary
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Kametani Y, Katano I, Miyamoto A, Kikuchi Y, Ito R, Muguruma Y, Tsuda B, Habu S, Tokuda Y, Ando K, Ito M. NOG-hIL-4-Tg, a new humanized mouse model for producing tumor antigen-specific IgG antibody by peptide vaccination. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0179239. [PMID: 28617827 PMCID: PMC5472286 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunodeficient mice transplanted with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) are promising tools to evaluate human immune responses to vaccines. However, these mice usually develop severe graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), which makes estimation of antigen-specific IgG production after antigen immunization difficult. To evaluate antigen-specific IgG responses in PBMC-transplanted immunodeficient mice, we developed a novel NOD/Shi-scid-IL2rγnull (NOG) mouse strain that systemically expresses the human IL-4 gene (NOG-hIL-4-Tg). After human PBMC transplantation, GVHD symptoms were significantly suppressed in NOG-hIL-4-Tg compared to conventional NOG mice. In kinetic analyses of human leukocytes, long-term engraftment of human T cells has been observed in peripheral blood of NOG-hIL-4-Tg, followed by dominant CD4+ T rather than CD8+ T cell proliferation. Furthermore, these CD4+ T cells shifted to type 2 helper (Th2) cells, resulting in long-term suppression of GVHD. Most of the human B cells detected in the transplanted mice had a plasmablast phenotype. Vaccination with HER2 multiple antigen peptide (CH401MAP) or keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) successfully induced antigen-specific IgG production in PBMC-transplanted NOG-hIL-4-Tg. The HLA haplotype of donor PBMCs might not be relevant to the antibody secretion ability after immunization. These results suggest that the human PBMC-transplanted NOG-hIL-4-Tg mouse is an effective tool to evaluate the production of antigen-specific IgG antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshie Kametani
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Institute of Advanced Biosciences, Tokai University, Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Ikumi Katano
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Asuka Miyamoto
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
- Department of Breast and Endocrine surgery, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yusuke Kikuchi
- Department of Molecular Life Science, Division of Basic Medical Science, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Ryoji Ito
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Yukari Muguruma
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Banri Tsuda
- Department of Breast and Endocrine surgery, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Sonoko Habu
- Department of Immunology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yutaka Tokuda
- Department of Breast and Endocrine surgery, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Ando
- Department of Hematology and Oncology, Tokai University School of Medicine, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Mamoru Ito
- Central Institute for Experimental Animals, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, Japan
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Bakacs T, Mehrishi JN, Szabó M, Moss RW. Interesting possibilities to improve the safety and efficacy of ipilimumab (Yervoy). Pharmacol Res 2012; 66:192-7. [PMID: 22503629 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2012.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2012] [Revised: 03/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/28/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
As predicted, an anti-CTLA-4 mAb (ipilimumab) on binding to T lymphocytes breaks down immune-tolerance. Thereby, it was hoped, tumor-specific-T cells would be freed for a sustained attack on cancer cells. Data on ipilimumab treatment in 1498 patients with advanced melanoma (in 14 phase I-III trials) has shown immune-related adverse events (irAEs) in 64.2% of the patients consistent with tolerance breakdown. However, there is no evidence that the antitumor effects via a CTLA-4 blockade are attributable to T cells specifically targeting tumor cells. In fact, several trials indicate a possible correlation between grade 3 and 4 irAEs with clinical efficacy of ipilimumab; tumor regression may be associated with autoimmunity development. Therefore, we suggest a new treatment paradigm. The non-tumor specific pan-lymphocytic activation should be exploited by a 'pretargeting' approach proven successful in radioimmunodetection and radioimmunotherapy. First, an anti-tumor mAb conjugated with streptavidin (StAv) should be administered to be followed by the delivery of biotin-labeled anti-CTLA-4 mAb. This schedule has the virtue of endowing T cells with the ability to travel to tumor sites without prematurely succumbing to apoptosis, while streptavidin's ultra-high affinity for biotin (K(D), 10⁻¹⁵ M) ensures capturing all T cells binding biotin labeled anti-CTLA-4. Using the law of mass action, we calculated that following administration of ipilimumab at >1 mg/L concentration (∼5 mg per patient ∼70 kgbw), the immense forces of the immune system liberated by the anti-CTLA-4 antibody blockade would then be focused with laser sharp accuracy on tumor cells without collateral damage to normal host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Bakacs
- Department of Probability, Alfred Renyi Institute of Mathematics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Realtanoda Utca 13-15, H-1053 Budapest, Hungary
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SZABADOS TAMÁS, BAKÁCS TIBOR. SUFFICIENT TO RECOGNIZE SELF TO ATTACK NON-SELF: BLUEPRINT FOR A ONE-SIGNAL T CELL MODEL. J BIOL SYST 2011. [DOI: 10.1142/s0218339011003919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Current consensus postulates that the class I-antigen processing system is evolved to present microbial antigens to specific T cells. Since such cells are rare and short-lived, they require three to five days to attain fighting strength. During this critical period he innate immune system holds back the briskly multiplying pathogens. Nevertheless, a T cell response is measurable in the lymph nodes draining the infection site within 12 to 18 h. In order to explain this paradox here we suggest a new T cell model. This is based on the observation that T cells require continuous contact of the T cell receptor (TCR) with selecting self-peptide–major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules in the periphery for their survival. We postulate that a dynamic steady state, a so-called coupled system is formed through low affinity complementary TCR–MHC interactions between T cells and host cells. Under such condition it is sufficient to recognize what is self in order to attack what is not self. A coupled system is regulated via soluble forms of peptide–MHC and TCR molecules by the law of mass action. In a coupled system one signal is sufficient for T cell activation. The new model implies that a significant fraction of the naive polyclonal T cells are recruited into the first line of defense from the very outset of an infection, so the number of activated T cells is increased by several orders of magnitude compared to conventional models. The one-signal model also predicts that therapeutic administration of soluble agonist or antagonist T cell receptor ligands may be able to fine tune the homeostatic physiological regulatory mechanism and thus improve the treatment of some chronic diseases such as metastatic cancer, HIV/AIDS, and transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- TAMÁS SZABADOS
- Department of Mathematics, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp 3, Budapest, 1521, Hungary
| | - TIBOR BAKÁCS
- Alfréd Rényi Institute of Mathematics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Reáltanoda u 13-15, Budapest, 1053, Hungary
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Bakacs T, Mehrishi JN, Moss RW. Ipilimumab (Yervoy) and the TGN1412 catastrophe. Immunobiology 2011; 217:583-9. [PMID: 21821307 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2011.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The development of the anti-CTLA-4 antibody (ipilimumab; marketed as Yervoy) immune regulatory therapy was based on the premise that "Abrogation of the function of CTLA-4 would permit CD28 to function unopposed and might swing the balance in favor of immune stimulation, tolerance breakdown and tumor eradication…" (Weber, 2009). By now, the vast majority of data collected from more than 4000 patients proves that this prediction was entirely correct. Paradoxically, the successful blockade of immune checkpoints raises the question whether an anti-CTLA-4 antibody could ever become an important therapy against cancer. T cells lost their ability to discriminate between self and non-self. Thus, tolerance to self tissues was broken in ∼70% of the patients. In the recent industry-sponsored phase III clinical trial of ipilimumab, 147 (38.7%) of the patients experienced severe adverse events and 6.8% suffered dose-limiting events (8.4%, in the ipilimumab-alone group). There were 14 deaths related to the study drugs and 7 of these were associated with immune-related adverse events. In contrast, the complete response rate was only 0.2%, in one patient out of 403 who received ipilimumab plus a peptide vaccine. Promoters of ipilimumab appear to be unmindful of the clinical trial catastrophe in London. Then, a humanized "superagonist" anti-CD28 monoclonal antibody, TGN1412, which "preferentially" activated regulatory T cells, at a higher dose, also activated all CD28 positive T cells. This precipitated a "cytokine storm" leading to life-threatening multiple organ failure in the six healthy human volunteers. Neither anti-CD28 nor anti-CTLA-4 therapies rely on antigen-specificity. Both release free antibody into the body against common molecular targets that are expressed on the targeted as well as on the non-targeted T cells. At lower antibody doses specific T cells are preferentially activated. With increasing antibody dose, however, the kinetics of the interaction is pushed in favor of widespread non-specific T cell expansion. Using the law of mass action we calculated that the vast majority of the CTLA-4 receptors on all activated T cells (including melanoma specific T cells) in the phase III clinical trial of ipilimumab will have been saturated. This would explain the runaway immune response observed. The conclusions drawn by the authors of the ipilimumab trial paper could bear an independent inspection and reassessment concerning the validation of the blockade of immune checkpoints as an important therapeutic strategy against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Bakacs
- Department of Probability, Alfred Renyi Institute of Mathematics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Realtanoda utca 13-15, H-1053 Budapest, Hungary.
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Bakács T, Mehrishi JN. Breast and other cancer dormancy as a therapeutic endpoint: speculative recombinant T cell receptor ligand (RTL) adjuvant therapy worth considering? BMC Cancer 2010; 10:251. [PMID: 20525172 PMCID: PMC2898695 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2407-10-251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Most individuals who died of trauma were found to harbour microscopic primary cancers at autopsies. Surgical excision of the primary tumour, unfortunately, seems to disturb tumour dormancy in over half of all metastatic relapses. PRESENTATION OF THE HYPOTHESIS A recently developed immune model suggested that the evolutionary pressure driving the creation of a T cell receptor repertoire was primarily the homeostatic surveillance of the genome. The model is based on the homeostatic role of T cells, suggesting that molecular complementarity between the positively selected T cell receptors and the self peptide-presenting major histocompatibility complex molecules establishes and regulates homeostasis, strictly limiting variations of its components. The repertoire is maintained by continuous peripheral stimulation via soluble forms of self-peptide-presenting major histocompatibility complex molecules governed by the law of mass action. The model states that foreign peptides inhibit the complementary interactions between the major histocompatibility complexes and T cell receptors. Since the vast majority of clinically detected cancers present self-peptides the model assumes that tumour cells are, paradoxically, under homeostatic T cell control.The novelty of our hypothesis therefore is that resection of the primary tumour mass is perceived as loss of 'normal' tissue cells. Consequently, T cells striving to reconstitute homeostasis stimulate rather than inhibit the growth of dormant tumour cells and avascular micrometastases. Here we suggest that such kick-start growths could be prevented by a recombinant T cell receptor ligand therapy that modifies T cell behaviour through a partial activation mechanism. TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS The homeostatic T cell regulation of tumours can be tested in a tri-transgenic mice model engineered to express potent oncogenes in a doxycycline-dependent manner. We suggest seeding dissociated, untransformed mammary cells from doxycycline naïve mice into the lungs of two mice groups: one carries mammary tumours, the other does not. Both recipient groups to be fed doxycycline in order to activate the oncogenes of the untransformed mammary cells in the lungs, where solitary nodules are expected to develop 6 weeks after injection. We expect that lung metastasis development will be stimulated following resection of the primary tumour mass compared to the tumour-free mice. A recombinant T cell receptor ligand therapy, starting at least one day before resection and continuing during the entire experimental period, would be able to prevent the stimulating effect of surgery. IMPLICATIONS OF THE HYPOTHESIS Recombinant T cell receptor ligand therapy of diagnosed cancer would keep all metastatic deposits microscopic for as long as the therapy is continued without limit and could be pursued as one method of cancer control. Improving the outcome of therapy by preventing the development of metastases is perhaps achievable more readily than curing patients with overt metastases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Bakács
- Department of Probability, Alfred Rényi Institute of Mathematics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Reáltanoda utca 13-15, H-1053 Budapest, Hungary
| | - Jitendra N Mehrishi
- University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- The Cambridge Blood Cell, Stem Cells, Spermatozoa and Opioid Research Initiatives, Macfarlane Cl. 13, Impington, Cambridge CB24 9LZ, UK
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Guo Y, Hill AA, Ramsey RC, Immermann FW, Corcoran C, Young D, Lavallie ER, Ryan M, Bechard T, Pfeifer R, Warner G, Bologna M, Bloom L, O'Toole M. Assessing agonistic potential of a candidate therapeutic anti-IL21R antibody. J Transl Med 2010; 8:50. [PMID: 20504348 PMCID: PMC2896924 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-8-50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2009] [Accepted: 05/26/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Selective neutralization of the IL21/IL21R signaling pathway is a promising approach for the treatment of a variety of autoimmune diseases. Ab-01 is a human neutralizing anti-IL21R antibody. In order to ensure that the activities of Ab-01 are restricted to neutralization even under in vitro cross-linking and in vivo conditions, a comprehensive assessment of agonistic potential of Ab-01 was undertaken. Methods In vitro antibody cross-linking and cell culture protocols reported for studies with a human agonistic antibody, TGN1412, were followed for Ab-01. rhIL21, the agonist ligand of the targeted receptor, and cross-linked anti-CD28 were used as positive controls for signal transduction. In vivo agonistic potential of Ab-01 was assessed by measuring expression levels of cytokine storm-associated and IL21 pathway genes in blood of cynomolgus monkeys before and after IV administration of Ab-01. Results Using a comprehensive set of assays that detected multiple activation signals in the presence of the positive control agonists, in vitro Ab-01-dependent activation was not detected in either PBMCs or the rhIL21-responsive cell line Daudi. Furthermore, no difference in gene expression levels was detected in blood before and after in vivo Ab-01 dosing of cynomolgus monkeys. Conclusions Despite efforts to intentionally force an agonistic signal from Ab-01, none could be detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongjing Guo
- Pfizer, BioTherapeutics Clinical Translational Medicine, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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Hansel TT, Kropshofer H, Singer T, Mitchell JA, George AJT. The safety and side effects of monoclonal antibodies. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2010; 9:325-38. [PMID: 20305665 DOI: 10.1038/nrd3003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 717] [Impact Index Per Article: 51.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are now established as targeted therapies for malignancies, transplant rejection, autoimmune and infectious diseases, as well as a range of new indications. However, administration of mAbs carries the risk of immune reactions such as acute anaphylaxis, serum sickness and the generation of antibodies. In addition, there are numerous adverse effects of mAbs that are related to their specific targets, including infections and cancer, autoimmune disease, and organ-specific adverse events such as cardiotoxicity. In March 2006, a life-threatening cytokine release syndrome occurred during a first-in-human study with TGN1412 (a CD28-specific superagonist mAb), resulting in a range of recommendations to improve the safety of initial human clinical studies with mAbs. Here, we review some of the adverse effects encountered with mAb therapies, and discuss advances in preclinical testing and antibody technology aimed at minimizing the risk of these events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor T Hansel
- Imperial Clinical Respiratory Research Unit, St Mary's Hospital, Paddington, London, UK.
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Secombes C. Will advances in fish immunology change vaccination strategies? FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 25:409-416. [PMID: 18562212 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2008.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2008] [Revised: 05/01/2008] [Accepted: 05/07/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
This review will discuss some of the recent advances in discovering immune genes in fish, in terms of their relevance to vaccine design and development. Particular emphasis will be placed on the many cytokine and costimulatory molecules now known, with examples drawn from the mammalian literature as to their potential value for fish vaccinology. A new area of vaccine research will also be touched upon, where efficacious responses are elicited by inhibiting the natural negative regulators of immune responses, such as Treg cell products and SOCS proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris Secombes
- Scottish Fish Immunology Research Centre, University of Aberdeen, Tillydrone Avenue, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, United Kingdom.
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Principles of Clinical Pharmacology, 2nd Edition. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2008. [DOI: 10.1038/sj.clpt.6100485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Dayan CM, Wraith DC. Preparing for first-in-man studies: the challenges for translational immunology post-TGN1412. Clin Exp Immunol 2008; 151:231-4. [PMID: 18190459 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2007.03559.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Current immunology research is generating many new approaches to immunotherapy. However, the recent disaster surrounding the testing of TGN1412, has unsettled regulators and the pharmaceutical industry regarding new immunotherapies and highlighted the complexities of conducting clinical trials with agents that target the immune system. Here we discuss the critical role for immunologists in ensuring that the development of new immunotherapies continues.
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Affiliation(s)
- C M Dayan
- Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, Dorothy Hodgkin Building, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
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Kuiper J, van Puijvelde GHM, van Wanrooij EJA, van Es T, Habets K, Hauer AD, van den Berkel TJC. Immunomodulation of the inflammatory response in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol 2007; 18:521-6. [PMID: 17885422 DOI: 10.1097/mol.0b013e3282efd0d4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Cardiovascular disease, as manifested in the formation of atherosclerotic lesions, can be described as a chronic inflammatory autoimmune-like disease that proceeds in the context of enhanced plasma lipid levels. Modulation of the immune response may therefore form a valuable therapy in addition to standardized cholesterol and blood pressure-lowering therapies. The purpose of this review is to describe a number of recent approaches to immunomodulate atherosclerosis: immunization against mediators involved in atherosclerosis, such as cytokines and modified low-density lipoprotein; intervention in cytokine pathways; intervention in co-stimulatory pathways; activation of regulatory T cells; and modulation of natural killer T cells. RECENT FINDINGS The most recent findings point to an important role for regulatory T cells in atherosclerotic lesion formation. The function of the regulatory T cells is modulated by chemokines and by co-stimulatory pathways, whereas the function of these cells can be strongly upregulated by anti-CD3 treatment and tolerance induction. SUMMARY In the near future the first exponents of this approach, such as immunization and enhancement of the function of regulatory T cells, may enter the first phase of clinical trials, and may ultimately add to the current therapies in atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan Kuiper
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Bakács T, Mehrishi JN, Szabados T, Varga L, Szabó M, Tusnády G. T Cells Survey the Stability of the Self: A Testable Hypothesis on the Homeostatic Role of TCR-MHC Interactions. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2007; 144:171-82. [PMID: 17541288 DOI: 10.1159/000103282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2007] [Accepted: 04/11/2007] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In the lifetime of an individual, every single gene will have undergone mutation on about 10(10) separate occasions. Nevertheless, cancer occurs mainly with advancing age. Here, we hypothesize that the evolutionary pressure driving the creation of the T cell receptor (TCR) repertoire was primarily the homeostatic surveillance of the genome. The subtly variable T cells may in fact constitute an evolutionary link between the invariable innate and hypervariable B cell systems. The new model is based on the homeostatic role of T cells, suggesting that molecular complementarity between the positively selected TCR and the self peptide-presenting major histocompatibility complex molecules establishes and regulates homeostasis, strictly limiting variations of its components. Notwithstanding, the 'homeostatic role of T cells' model offers a more realistic explanation as to how a naïve clonal immune system can cope with the much faster replicating pathogens, despite a limited repertoire that is capable of facing only a small fraction of the vast antigenic universe at a time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibor Bakács
- Department of Probability, Alfred Rényi Institute of Mathematics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
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