The use of green fluorescent protein as a marker for Brucella vaccines

Identifying Key Drivers of Efficient B Cell Responses: On the Role of T Help, Antigen-Organization, and Toll-like Receptor Stimulation for Generating a Neutralizing Anti-Dengue Virus Response

T help (Th), stimulation of toll-like receptors (pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs), and antigen organization and repetitiveness (pathogen-associated structural patterns, PASPs) were shown numerous times to be important in driving B-cell and antibody responses. In this study, we dissected the individual contributions of these parameters using newly developed "Immune-tag" technology. As model antigens, we used eGFP and the third domain of the dengue virus 1 envelope protein (DV1 EDIII), the major target of virus-neutralizing antibodies. The respective proteins were expressed alone or genetically fused to the N-terminal fragment of the cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) capsid protein-nCMV, rendering the antigens oligomeric. In a step-by-step manner, RNA was attached as a PAMP, and/or a universal Th-cell epitope was genetically added for additional Th. Finally, a PASP was added to the constructs by displaying the antigens highly organized and repetitively on the surface of CMV-derived virus-like particles (CuMV VLPs). Sera from immunized mice demonstrated that each component contributed stepwise to the immunogenicity of both proteins. All components combined in the CuMV VLP platform induced by far the highest antibody responses. In addition, the DV1 EDIII induced high levels of DENV-1-neutralizing antibodies only if displayed on VLPs. Thus, combining multiple cues typically associated with viruses results in optimal antibody responses.

Brucella abortus S19 GFP-tagged vaccine allows the serological identification of vaccinated cattle

Bovine brucellosis induces abortion in cows, produces important economic losses, and causes a widely distributed zoonosis. Its eradication was achieved in several countries after sustained vaccination with the live attenuated Brucella abortus S19 vaccine, in combination with the slaughtering of serologically positive animals. S19 induces antibodies against the smooth lipopolysaccharide (S-LPS), making difficult the differentiation of infected from vaccinated bovines. We developed an S19 strain constitutively expressing the green fluorescent protein (S19-GFP) coded in chromosome II. The S19-GFP displays similar biological characteristics and immunogenic and protective efficacies in mice to the parental S19 strain. S19-GFP can be distinguished from S19 and B. abortus field strains by fluorescence and multiplex PCR. Twenty-five heifers were vaccinated withS19-GFP (5×109 CFU) by the subcutaneous or conjunctival routes and some boosted with GFP seven weeks thereafter. Immunized animals were followed up for over three years and tested for anti-S-LPS antibodies by both the Rose Bengal test and a competitive ELISA. Anti-GFP antibodies were detected by an indirect ELISA and Western blotting. In most cases, anti-S-LPS antibodies preceded for several weeks those against GFP. The anti-GFP antibody response was higher in the GFP boosted than in the non-boosted animals. In all cases, the anti-GFP antibodies persisted longer, or at least as long, as those against S-LPS. The drawbacks and potential advantages of using the S19-GFP vaccine for identifying vaccinated animals in infected environments are discussed.

GFP tagging of Brucella melitensis Rev1 allows the identification of vaccinated sheep

Brucellosis is a worldwide zoonosis causing important economic loss and a public health problem. Small ruminants are the preferred hosts of Brucella melitensis and thus the main source of human infections. Effective control of sheep and goat brucellosis has been achieved in several countries through vaccination with the live-attenuated B. melitensis Rev1 vaccine. However, Rev1 induces a long-lasting serological response that hinders the differentiation between infected and vaccinated animals. A Rev1::gfp strain expressing constitutively the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) was built by stable insertion of a mini-Tn7-gfp in the glmS-recG non-codifying chromosomal region. An associated indirect ELISA-GFP was developed to identify anti-GFP antibodies in vaccinated animals. The resulting Rev1::gfp kept the biological properties of the Rev1 reference strain, including residual virulence and efficacy in mice, and was readily distinguished from Rev1 and other Brucella field strains by direct visualization under ultraviolet illumination, fluorescence microscopy and a multiplex PCR-GFP. The Rev1::gfp strain did not elicit anti-GFP antibodies itself in lambs but when applied in combination with recombinant GFP induced an intense and long-lasting (>9 months) anti-GFP serological response readily detectable by the ELISA-GFP. Overall, our results confirm that Rev1 GFP-tagging can be a suitable alternative for identifying vaccinated sheep in infected contexts.

A MALDI-TOF MS database with broad genus coverage for species-level identification of Brucella

Brucella are highly infectious bacterial pathogens responsible for a severely debilitating zoonosis called brucellosis. Half of the human population worldwide is considered to live at risk of exposure, mostly in the poorest rural areas of the world. Prompt diagnosis of brucellosis is essential to prevent complications and to control epidemiology outbreaks, but identification of Brucella isolates may be hampered by the lack of rapid and cost-effective methods. Nowadays, many clinical microbiology laboratories use Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization–Time Of Flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) for routine identification. However, lack of reference spectra in the currently commercialized databases does not allow the identification of Brucella isolates. In this work, we constructed a Brucella MALDI-TOF MS reference database using VITEK MS. We generated 590 spectra from 84 different strains (including rare or atypical isolates) to cover this bacterial genus. We then applied a novel biomathematical approach to discriminate different species. This allowed accurate identification of Brucella isolates at the genus level with no misidentifications, in particular as the closely related and less pathogenic Ochrobactrum genus. The main zoonotic species (B. melitensis, B. abortus and B. suis) could also be identified at the species level with an accuracy of 100%, 92.9% and 100%, respectively. This MALDI-TOF reference database will be the first Brucella database validated for diagnostic and accessible to all VITEK MS users in routine. This will improve the diagnosis and control of brucellosis by allowing a rapid identification of these pathogens.

Brucella are bacteria that mainly infect animals. They can also be transmitted to humans and cause a serious disease called brucellosis. Half the world's population is considered exposed, especially in the poorest rural areas. Experts agree that prompt identification of Brucella isolates is essential to provide appropriate treatment to patients and to control epidemiological outbreaks. Mis-identification of these highly infectious pathogens may lead to delays in diagnosis, but also to increased risks of accidental exposure for laboratory workers. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry is now the first line of bacterial identification in many routine diagnostic laboratories. However, not all clinical mass spectrometers can identify Brucella. In this work, we updated a database with Brucella spectra to improve the performance of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometers. These instruments will now be able to identify accurately Brucella isolates. This will greatly improve the diagnosis of brucellosis.

N-Formyl-Perosamine Surface Homopolysaccharides Hinder the Recognition of Brucella abortus by Mouse Neutrophils

Brucella abortus is an intracellular pathogen of monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and placental trophoblasts. This bacterium causes a chronic disease in bovines and in humans. In these hosts, the bacterium also invades neutrophils; however, it fails to replicate and just resists the killing action of these leukocytes without inducing significant activation or neutrophilia. Moreover, B. abortus causes the premature cell death of human neutrophils. In the murine model, the bacterium is found within macrophages and dendritic cells at early times of infection but seldom in neutrophils. Based on this observation, we explored the interaction of mouse neutrophils with B. abortus In contrast to human, dog, and bovine neutrophils, naive mouse neutrophils fail to recognize smooth B. abortus bacteria at early stages of infection. Murine normal serum components do not opsonize smooth Brucella strains, and neutrophil phagocytosis is achieved only after the appearance of antibodies. Alternatively, mouse normal serum is capable of opsonizing rough Brucella mutants. Despite this, neutrophils still fail to kill Brucella, and the bacterium induces cell death of murine leukocytes. In addition, mouse serum does not opsonize Yersinia enterocolitica O:9, a bacterium displaying the same surface polysaccharide antigen as smooth B. abortus Therefore, the lack of murine serum opsonization and absence of murine neutrophil recognition are specific, and the molecules responsible for the Brucella camouflage are N-formyl-perosamine surface homopolysaccharides. Although the mouse is a valuable model for understanding the immunobiology of brucellosis, direct extrapolation from one animal system to another has to be undertaken with caution.

Brucella canis is an intracellular pathogen that induces a lower proinflammatory response than smooth zoonotic counterparts

Canine brucellosis caused by Brucella canis is a disease of dogs and a zoonotic risk. B. canis harbors most of the virulence determinants defined for the genus, but its pathogenic strategy remains unclear since it has not been demonstrated that this natural rough bacterium is an intracellular pathogen. Studies of B. canis outbreaks in kennel facilities indicated that infected dogs displaying clinical signs did not present hematological alterations. A virulent B. canis strain isolated from those outbreaks readily replicated in different organs of mice for a protracted period. However, the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and IL-12 in serum were close to background levels. Furthermore, B. canis induced lower levels of gamma interferon, less inflammation of the spleen, and a reduced number of granulomas in the liver in mice than did B. abortus. When the interaction of B. canis with cells was studied ex vivo, two patterns were observed, a predominant scattered cell-associated pattern of nonviable bacteria and an infrequent intracellular replicative pattern of viable bacteria in a perinuclear location. The second pattern, responsible for the increase in intracellular multiplication, was dependent on the type IV secretion system VirB and was seen only if the inoculum used for cell infections was in early exponential phase. Intracellular replicative B. canis followed an intracellular trafficking route undistinguishable from that of B. abortus. Although B. canis induces a lower proinflammatory response and has a stealthier replication cycle, it still displays the pathogenic properties of the genus and the ability to persist in infected organs based on the ability to multiply intracellularly.

Brucella abortus Induces the Premature Death of Human Neutrophils through the Action of Its Lipopolysaccharide

Most bacterial infections induce the activation of polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs), enhance their microbicidal function, and promote the survival of these leukocytes for protracted periods of time. Brucella abortus is a stealthy pathogen that evades innate immunity, barely activates PMNs, and resists the killing mechanisms of these phagocytes. Intriguing clinical signs observed during brucellosis are the low numbers of Brucella infected PMNs in the target organs and neutropenia in a proportion of the patients; features that deserve further attention. Here we demonstrate that B. abortus prematurely kills human PMNs in a dose-dependent and cell-specific manner. Death of PMNs is concomitant with the intracellular Brucella lipopolysaccharide (Br-LPS) release within vacuoles. This molecule and its lipid A reproduce the premature cell death of PMNs, a phenomenon associated to the low production of proinflammatory cytokines. Blocking of CD14 but not TLR4 prevents the Br-LPS-induced cell death. The PMNs cell death departs from necrosis, NETosis and classical apoptosis. The mechanism of PMN cell death is linked to the activation of NADPH-oxidase and a modest but steadily increase of ROS mediators. These effectors generate DNA damage, recruitments of check point kinase 1, caspases 5 and to minor extent of caspase 4, RIP1 and Ca⁺⁺ release. The production of IL-1β by PMNs was barely stimulated by B. abortus infection or Br-LPS treatment. Likewise, inhibition of caspase 1 did not hamper the Br-LPS induced PMN cell death, suggesting that the inflammasome pathway was not involved. Although activation of caspases 8 and 9 was observed, they did not seem to participate in the initial triggering mechanisms, since inhibition of these caspases scarcely blocked PMN cell death. These findings suggest a mechanism for neutropenia in chronic brucellosis and reveal a novel Brucella-host cross-talk through which B. abortus is able to hinder the innate function of PMN.

The absence of obvious clinical symptoms during the early stages of brucellosis is linked to the Brucella stealthy strategy and its non-canonical PAMPs, which are low PRRs agonists. Still, there are clinical profiles that require explanation. For instance ‒despite the fact that neutrophils readily ingest Brucella during the onset of infection, brucellosis courses without neutrophilia, and just a low number of infected neutrophils are present in target organs. In the chronic phases, a significant proportion of the patients display absolute neutropenia and bone marrow pancytopenia linked to the myeloid cell linage. Examination of the Brucella infected bone marrow reveals granulomas and phagocytosis of myeloid cells. Based on these observations we explored the fate of native neutrophils during their interaction with Brucella. We found that the bacterium induces the premature cell death of neutrophils without inducing proinflammatory phenotypic changes. This event was reproduced by the lipid A of the Brucella LPS and depends on NADPH-oxidase activation and low ROS formation. We believe that this phenomenon explains ‒at least in part‒ the hematological and histological profiles observed during brucellosis. In addition, it may be that dying Brucella-infected neutrophils serve as “Trojan horse” vehicles for infecting phagocytic cells without promoting activation.

Evaluation of a Brucella melitensis mutant deficient in O-polysaccharide export system ATP-binding protein as a rough vaccine candidate

Rough Brucella mutants have been sought as vaccine candidates that do not interfere with the conventional serological diagnosis of brucellosis. In this study, a rough mutant of Brucella melitensis was generated by the disruption of the wzt gene, which encodes the O-polysaccharide (O-PS) export system ATP-binding protein. In vivo, the mutant 16MΔwzt was attenuated and conferred a level of protection against B. melitensis 16M challenge similar to that conferred by the vaccine strain B. melitensis M5 in mice. In pregnant sheep, the mutant 16MΔwzt did not induce abortion. In vitro, 16MΔwzt was more susceptible to polymyxin B and complement-mediated killing than B. melitensis 16M was. Most importantly, although 16MΔwzt had a rough phenotype, it was able to synthesize O-PS and did not induce detectable specific antibodies in sheep. These results suggested that 16MΔwzt deserved to further systematic evaluation as a vaccine for target animal hosts due to its promising features.

Mutants in the lipopolysaccharide of Brucella ovis are attenuated and protect against B. ovis infection in mice

Brucella spp. are Gram-negative bacteria that behave as facultative intracellular parasites of a variety of mammals. This genus includes smooth (S) and rough (R) species that carry S and R lipopolysaccharides (LPS), respectively. S-LPS is a virulence factor, and mutants affected in the S-LPS O-polysaccharide (R mutants), core oligosaccharide or both show attenuation. However, B. ovis is naturally R and is virulent in sheep. We studied the role of B. ovis LPS in virulence by mutating the orthologues of wadA, wadB and wadC, three genes known to encode LPS core glycosyltransferases in S brucellae. When mapped with antibodies to outer membrane proteins (Omps) and R-LPS, wadB and wadC mutants displayed defects in LPS structure and outer membrane topology but inactivation of wadA had little or no effect. Consistent with these observations, the wadB and wadC but not the wadA mutants were attenuated in mice. When tested as vaccines, the wadB and wadC mutants protected mice against B. ovis challenge. The results demonstrate that the LPS core is a structure essential for survival in vivo not only of S brucellae but also of a naturally R Brucella pathogenic species, and they confirm our previous hypothesis that the Brucella LPS core is a target for vaccine development. Since vaccine B. melitensis Rev 1 is S and thus interferes in serological testing for S brucellae, wadB mutant represents a candidate vaccine to be evaluated against B. ovis infection of sheep suitable for areas free of B. melitensis.

Progress in Brucella vaccine development

Brucella spp. are zoonotic, facultative intracellular pathogens, which cause animal and human disease. Animal disease results in abortion of fetuses; in humans, it manifests flu-like symptoms with an undulant fever, with osteoarthritis as a common complication of infection. Antibiotic regimens for human brucellosis patients may last several months and are not always completely effective. While there are no vaccines for humans, several licensed live Brucella vaccines are available for use in livestock. The performance of these animal vaccines is dependent upon the host species, dose, and route of immunization. Newly engineered live vaccines, lacking well-defined virulence factors, retain low residual virulence, are highly protective, and may someday replace currently used animal vaccines. These also have possible human applications. Moreover, due to their enhanced safety and efficacy in animal models, subunit vaccines for brucellosis show great promise for their application in livestock and humans. This review summarizes the progress of brucellosis vaccine development and presents an overview of candidate vaccines.

Lipopolysaccharide as a target for brucellosis vaccine design

The gram-negative bacteria of the genus Brucella are facultative intracellular parasites that cause brucellosis, a world wide-distributed zoonotic disease that represents a serious problem for animal and human health. There is no human-to-human contagion and, since there is no human vaccine, animal vaccination is essential to control brucellosis. However, current vaccines (all developed empirically) do not provide 100% protection and are infectious in humans. Attempts to generate new vaccines by obtaining mutants lacking the lipopolysaccharide O-polysaccharide, in purine metabolism or in Brucella type IV secretion system have not been successful. Here we propose a new approach to develop brucellosis vaccines based on the concept that Brucella surface molecules evade efficient detection by innate immunity, thus delaying protective Th1 responses and opening a time window to reach sheltered intracellular compartments. We showed recently that a branch of the core oligosaccharide section of Brucella lipopolysaccharide hampers recognition by TLR4-MD2. Mutation of glycosyltransferase WadC, involved in the synthesis of this branch, results in a lipopolysaccharide that, while keeping the O-polysaccharide essential for optimal protection, shows a truncated core, is more efficiently recognized by MD2 and triggers an increased cytokine response. In keeping with this, the wadC mutant is attenuated in dendritic cells and mice. In the mouse model of brucellosis vaccines, the Brucella abortus wadC mutant conferred protection similar to that provided by S19, the best cattle vaccine available. The properties of the wadC mutant provide the proof of concept for this new approach and open the way for more effective brucellosis vaccines.