1
|
de Lima MR, Leandro ACCS, de Souza AL, Barradas MM, Roma EH, Fernandes ATG, Galdino-Silva G, Carvalho JKMR, Marchevsky RS, Coelho JMCO, Gonçalves EDC, VandeBerg JL, Silva CL, Bonecini-Almeida MDG. Safety and Immunogenicity of an In Vivo Muscle Electroporation Delivery System for DNA- hsp65 Tuberculosis Vaccine in Cynomolgus Monkeys. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1863. [PMID: 38140266 PMCID: PMC10747856 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11121863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
A Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) is still the only licensed vaccine for the prevention of tuberculosis, providing limited protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in adulthood. New advances in the delivery of DNA vaccines by electroporation have been made in the past decade. We evaluated the safety and immunogenicity of the DNA-hsp65 vaccine administered by intramuscular electroporation (EP) in cynomolgus macaques. Animals received three doses of DNA-hsp65 at 30-day intervals. We demonstrated that intramuscular electroporated DNA-hsp65 vaccine immunization of cynomolgus macaques was safe, and there were no vaccine-related effects on hematological, renal, or hepatic profiles, compared to the pre-vaccination parameters. No tuberculin skin test conversion nor lung X-ray alteration was identified. Further, low and transient peripheral cellular immune response and cytokine expression were observed, primarily after the third dose of the DNA-hsp65 vaccine. Electroporated DNA-hsp65 vaccination is safe but provides limited enhancement of peripheral cellular immune responses. Preclinical vaccine trials with DNA-hsp65 delivered via EP may include a combination of plasmid cytokine adjuvant and/or protein prime-boost regimen, to help the induction of a stronger cellular immune response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monique Ribeiro de Lima
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Ana Cristina C. S. Leandro
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
- Division of Human Genetics, South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA;
| | - Andreia Lamoglia de Souza
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Marcio Mantuano Barradas
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Eric Henrique Roma
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Ana Teresa Gomes Fernandes
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Gabrielle Galdino-Silva
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Joyce Katiuccia M. Ramos Carvalho
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| | - Renato Sergio Marchevsky
- Laboratory of Neurovirulence, Instituto de Biotecnologia em Imunobiológicos, Biomanguinhos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil;
| | - Janice M. C. Oliveira Coelho
- Laboratory of Pathology, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil;
| | | | - John L. VandeBerg
- Division of Human Genetics, South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, Brownsville, TX 78520, USA;
| | - Celio Lopes Silva
- Farmacore Biotecnologia Ltda, Ribeirão Preto 14056-680, SP, Brazil; (E.D.C.G.); (C.L.S.)
- Laboratory for Research and Development of Immunobiologicals, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, SP, Brazil
| | - Maria da Gloria Bonecini-Almeida
- Laboratory of Immunology and Immunogenetic in Infectious Diseases, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, RJ, Brazil; (M.R.d.L.); (A.C.C.S.L.); (A.L.d.S.); (M.M.B.); (E.H.R.); (A.T.G.F.); (G.G.-S.); (J.K.M.R.C.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Smeekens JM, Kesselring JR, Frizzell H, Bagley KC, Kulis MD. Induction of food-specific IgG by Gene Gun-delivered DNA vaccines. FRONTIERS IN ALLERGY 2022; 3:969337. [PMID: 36340020 PMCID: PMC9632862 DOI: 10.3389/falgy.2022.969337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Shellfish and tree nut allergies are among the most prevalent food allergies, now affecting 2%–3% and 1% of the US population, respectively. Currently, there are no approved therapies for shellfish or tree nut allergies, with strict avoidance being the standard of care. However, oral immunotherapy for peanut allergy and subcutaneous immunotherapy for environmental allergens are efficacious and lead to the production of allergen-specific IgG, which causes suppression of allergen effector cell degranulation. Since allergen-specific IgG is a desired response to alleviate IgE-mediated allergies, we tested transcutaneously-delivered DNA vaccines targeting shellfish and tree nut allergens for their ability to induce antigen-specific IgG, which would have therapeutic potential for food allergies. Methods We assessed Gene Gun-delivered DNA vaccines targeting either crustacean shellfish or walnut/pecan allergens, with or without IL-12, in naïve mice. Three strains of mice, BALB/cJ, C3H/HeJ and CC027/GeniUnc, were evaluated for IgG production following vaccination. Vaccines were administered twice via Gene Gun, three weeks apart and then blood was collected three weeks following the final vaccination. Results Vaccination with shellfish allergen DNA led to increased shrimp-specific IgG in all three strains, with the highest production in C3H/HeJ from the vaccine alone, whereas the vaccine with IL-12 led to the highest IgG production in BALB/cJ and CC027/GeniUnc mice. Similar IgG production was also induced against lobster and crab allergens. For walnut/pecan vaccines, BALB/cJ and C3H/HeJ mice produced significantly higher walnut- and pecan-specific IgG with the vaccine alone compared to the vaccine with IL-12, while the CC027 mice made significantly higher IgG with the addition of IL-12. Notably, intramuscular administration of the vaccines did not lead to increased antigen-specific IgG production, indicating that Gene Gun administration is a superior delivery modality. Conclusions Overall, these data demonstrate the utility of DNA vaccines against two lifelong food allergies, shellfish and tree nuts, suggesting their potential as a food allergy therapy in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Johanna M. Smeekens
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- UNC Food Allergy Initiative, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- Correspondence: Johanna M. Smeekens
| | - Janelle R. Kesselring
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- UNC Food Allergy Initiative, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | | | | | - Michael D. Kulis
- Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
- UNC Food Allergy Initiative, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cao Y, Hayashi CTH, Zavala F, Tripathi AK, Simonyan H, Young CN, Clark LC, Usuda Y, Van Parys JM, Kumar N. Effective Functional Immunogenicity of a DNA Vaccine Combination Delivered via In Vivo Electroporation Targeting Malaria Infection and Transmission. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:1134. [PMID: 35891298 PMCID: PMC9323668 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10071134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum circumsporozoite protein (PfCSP) and Pfs25 are leading candidates for the development of pre-erythrocytic and transmission-blocking vaccines (TBV), respectively. Although considerable progress has been made in developing PfCSP- and Pfs25-based vaccines, neither have elicited complete protection or transmission blocking in clinical trials. The combination of antigens targeting various life stages is an alternative strategy to develop a more efficacious malaria vaccine. In this study, female and male mice were immunized with DNA plasmids encoding PfCSP and Pfs25, administered alone or in combination via intramuscular in vivo electroporation (EP). Antigen-specific antibodies were analyzed for antibody titers, avidity and isotype by ELISA. Immune protection against sporozoite challenge, using transgenic P. berghei expressing PfCSP and a GFP-luciferase fusion protein (PbPfCSP-GFP/Luc), was assessed by in vivo bioluminescence imaging and blood-stage parasite growth. Transmission reducing activity (TRA) was evaluated in standard membrane feeding assays (SMFA). High levels of PfCSP- and Pfs25-specific antibodies were induced in mice immunized with either DNA vaccine alone or in combination. No difference in antibody titer and avidity was observed for both PfCSP and Pfs25 between the single DNA and combined DNA immunization groups. When challenged by PbPfCSP-GFP/Luc sporozoites, mice immunized with PfCSP alone or combined with Pfs25 revealed significantly reduced liver-stage parasite loads as compared to mice immunized with Pfs25, used as a control. Furthermore, parasite liver loads were negatively correlated with PfCSP-specific antibody levels. When evaluating TRA, we found that immunization with Pfs25 alone or in combination with PfCSP elicited comparable significant transmission reduction. Our studies reveal that the combination of PfCSP and Pfs25 DNAs into a vaccine delivered by in vivo EP in mice does not compromise immunogenicity, infection protection and transmission reduction when compared to each DNA vaccine individually, and provide support for further evaluation of this DNA combination vaccine approach in larger animals and clinical trials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yi Cao
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (Y.C.); (C.T.H.H.); (L.C.C.); (Y.U.); (J.M.V.P.)
| | - Clifford T. H. Hayashi
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (Y.C.); (C.T.H.H.); (L.C.C.); (Y.U.); (J.M.V.P.)
| | - Fidel Zavala
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; (F.Z.); (A.K.T.)
| | - Abhai K. Tripathi
- Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology, Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; (F.Z.); (A.K.T.)
| | - Hayk Simonyan
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (H.S.); (C.N.Y.)
| | - Colin N. Young
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, School of Medicine and Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (H.S.); (C.N.Y.)
| | - Leor C. Clark
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (Y.C.); (C.T.H.H.); (L.C.C.); (Y.U.); (J.M.V.P.)
| | - Yukari Usuda
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (Y.C.); (C.T.H.H.); (L.C.C.); (Y.U.); (J.M.V.P.)
| | - Jacob M. Van Parys
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (Y.C.); (C.T.H.H.); (L.C.C.); (Y.U.); (J.M.V.P.)
| | - Nirbhay Kumar
- Department of Global Health, Milken Institute School of Public Health, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA; (Y.C.); (C.T.H.H.); (L.C.C.); (Y.U.); (J.M.V.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Shan X, Gong X, Li J, Wen J, Li Y, Zhang Z. Current approaches of nanomedicines in the market and various stage of clinical translation. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:3028-3048. [PMID: 35865096 PMCID: PMC9293719 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2022.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 48.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
|
5
|
Eusébio D, Neves AR, Costa D, Biswas S, Alves G, Cui Z, Sousa Â. Methods to improve the immunogenicity of plasmid DNA vaccines. Drug Discov Today 2021; 26:2575-2592. [PMID: 34214667 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2021.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
DNA vaccines have emerged as innovative approaches that have great potential to overcome the limitations of current conventional vaccines. Plasmid DNA vaccines are often safer than other vaccines because they carry only antigen genetic information, are more stable and easier to produce, and can stimulate both humoral and cellular immune responses. Although the results of ongoing clinical trials are very promising, some limitations compromise the immunogenicity of these vaccines. Thus, this review describes different strategies that can be explored to improve the immunogenicity of plasmid DNA vaccines, including the optimization of the plasmid vector backbone, the use of different methods for vaccine delivery, the use of alternative administration routes and the inclusion of adjuvants. In combination, these improvements could lead to the successful clinical use of plasmid DNA vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dalinda Eusébio
- CICS-UBI - Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Ana R Neves
- CICS-UBI - Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Diana Costa
- CICS-UBI - Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Swati Biswas
- Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology & Science-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Jawahar Nagar, Shameerpet, Hyderabad 500078, Telangana, India
| | - Gilberto Alves
- CICS-UBI - Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal
| | - Zhengrong Cui
- The University of Texas at Austin, College of Pharmacy, Division of Molecular Pharmaceutics and Drug Delivery, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Ângela Sousa
- CICS-UBI - Health Science Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Av. Infante D. Henrique, 6200-506 Covilhã, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Tucker KD, Schanen BC, Phares TW, Sassano E, Terry FE, Hindocha P, Moise L, Kotraiah V, Martin WD, De Groot AS, Drake DR, Gutierrez GM, Noe AR. Identification, Selection and Immune Assessment of Liver Stage CD8 T Cell Epitopes From Plasmodium falciparum. Front Immunol 2021; 12:684116. [PMID: 34025684 PMCID: PMC8138313 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.684116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunization with radiation-attenuated sporozoites (RAS) has been shown to protect against malaria infection, primarily through CD8 T cell responses, but protection is limited based on parasite strain. Therefore, while CD8 T cells are an ideal effector population target for liver stage malaria vaccine development strategies, such strategies must incorporate conserved epitopes that cover a large range of class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA) supertypes to elicit cross-strain immunity across the target population. This approach requires identifying and characterizing a wide range of CD8 T cell epitopes for incorporation into a vaccine such that coverage across a large range of class I HLA alleles is attained. Accordingly, we devised an experimental framework to identify CD8 T cell epitopes from novel and minimally characterized antigens found at the pre-erythrocytic stage of parasite development. Through in silico analysis we selected conserved P. falciparum proteins, using P. vivax orthologues to establish stringent conservation parameters, predicted to have a high number of T cell epitopes across a set of six class I HLA alleles representative of major supertypes. Using the decision framework, five proteins were selected based on the density and number of predicted epitopes. Selected epitopes were synthesized as peptides and evaluated for binding to the class I HLA alleles in vitro to verify in silico binding predictions, and subsequently for stimulation of human T cells using the Modular IMmune In-vitro Construct (MIMIC®) technology to verify immunogenicity. By combining the in silico tools with the ex vivo high throughput MIMIC platform, we identified 15 novel CD8 T cell epitopes capable of stimulating an immune response in alleles across the class I HLA panel. We recommend these epitopes should be evaluated in appropriate in vivo humanized immune system models to determine their protective efficacy for potential inclusion in future vaccines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Anne S. De Groot
- EpiVax Inc., Providence, RI, United States
- University of Georgia Center for Vaccines and Immunology, Athens, GA, United States
| | | | | | - Amy R. Noe
- Leidos Life Sciences, Leidos Inc., Frederick, MD, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Adipose tissue: a new target for electroporation-enhanced DNA vaccines. Gene Ther 2017; 24:757-767. [PMID: 29106403 PMCID: PMC5746593 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2017.96] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
DNA vaccines delivered using electroporation (EP) have had clinical success, but these EP methods generally utilize invasive needle electrodes. Here, we demonstrate the delivery and immunogenicity of a DNA vaccine into subcutaneous adipose tissue cells using noninvasive EP. Using finite element analysis, we predicted that plate electrodes, when oriented properly, could effectively concentrate the electric field within adipose tissue. In practice, these electrodes generated widespread gene expression persisting for at least 60 days in vivo within interscapular subcutaneous fat pads of guinea pigs. We then applied this adipose-EP protocol to deliver a DNA vaccine coding for an influenza antigen into guinea pigs. The resulting host immune responses elicited were of a similar magnitude to those achieved by skin delivery with EP. The onset of the humoral immune response was more rapid when the DNA dose was spread over multiple injection sites, and increasing the voltage of the EP device increased the magnitude of the immune response. This study supports further development of EP protocols delivering gene-based therapies to subcutaneous fat.
Collapse
|
8
|
Schwartz L, Brown GV, Genton B, Moorthy VS. A review of malaria vaccine clinical projects based on the WHO rainbow table. Malar J 2012; 11:11. [PMID: 22230255 PMCID: PMC3286401 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2875-11-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2011] [Accepted: 01/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Development and Phase 3 testing of the most advanced malaria vaccine, RTS,S/AS01, indicates that malaria vaccine R&D is moving into a new phase. Field trials of several research malaria vaccines have also confirmed that it is possible to impact the host-parasite relationship through vaccine-induced immune responses to multiple antigenic targets using different platforms. Other approaches have been appropriately tested but turned out to be disappointing after clinical evaluation. As the malaria community considers the potential role of a first-generation malaria vaccine in malaria control efforts, it is an apposite time to carefully document terminated and ongoing malaria vaccine research projects so that lessons learned can be applied to increase the chances of success for second-generation malaria vaccines over the next 10 years. The most comprehensive resource of malaria vaccine projects is a spreadsheet compiled by WHO thanks to the input from funding agencies, sponsors and investigators worldwide. This spreadsheet, available from WHO's website, is known as "the rainbow table". By summarizing the published and some unpublished information available for each project on the rainbow table, the most comprehensive review of malaria vaccine projects to be published in the last several years is provided below.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Schwartz
- Initiative for Vaccine Research, Department of Immunization, Vaccines & Biologicals, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 20, 1211-CH 27, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|