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Veloso-Giménez V, Escamilla R, Necuñir D, Corrales-Orovio R, Riveros S, Marino C, Ehrenfeld C, Guzmán CD, Boric MP, Rebolledo R, Egaña JT. Development of a Novel Perfusable Solution for ex vivo Preservation: Towards Photosynthetic Oxygenation for Organ Transplantation. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 9:796157. [PMID: 34976984 PMCID: PMC8714958 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.796157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxygen is the key molecule for aerobic metabolism, but no animal cells can produce it, creating an extreme dependency on external supply. In contrast, microalgae are photosynthetic microorganisms, therefore, they are able to produce oxygen as plant cells do. As hypoxia is one of the main issues in organ transplantation, especially during preservation, the main goal of this work was to develop the first generation of perfusable photosynthetic solutions, exploring its feasibility for ex vivo organ preservation. Here, the microalgae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii was incorporated in a standard preservation solution, and key aspects such as alterations in cell size, oxygen production and survival were studied. Osmolarity and rheological features of the photosynthetic solution were comparable to human blood. In terms of functionality, the photosynthetic solution proved to be not harmful and to provide sufficient oxygen to support the metabolic requirement of zebrafish larvae and rat kidney slices. Thereafter, isolated porcine kidneys were perfused, and microalgae reached all renal vasculature, without inducing damage. After perfusion and flushing, no signs of tissue damage were detected, and recovered microalgae survived the process. Altogether, this work proposes the use of photosynthetic microorganisms as vascular oxygen factories to generate and deliver oxygen in isolated organs, representing a novel and promising strategy for organ preservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Veloso-Giménez
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rosalba Escamilla
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - David Necuñir
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rocío Corrales-Orovio
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Division of Hand, Plastic and Aesthetic Surgery, LMU Munich, University Hospital, Munich, Germany
| | - Sergio Riveros
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlo Marino
- Department of Digestive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carolina Ehrenfeld
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Mauricio P Boric
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Rolando Rebolledo
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile.,Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery Unit, Surgery Service, Hospital Dr. Sótero del Río, Santiago, Chile
| | - José Tomás Egaña
- Schools of Engineering, Medicine and Biological Sciences, Institute for Biological and Medical Engineering, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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2
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Zhou C, Yool AJ, Byard RW. The Etiology of Basal Vacuolizations in Renal Tubular Epithelial Cells Evaluated in an Isolated Perfused Kidney Model. J Forensic Sci 2016; 62:915-920. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Chong Zhou
- The University of Adelaide Medical School; Frome Road Adelaide SA 5005
- Forensic Science SA; 21 Divett Place Adelaide SA 5000 Australia
| | - Andrea J. Yool
- School of Medicine; The University of Adelaide; Frome Road Adelaide SA 5005
| | - Roger W. Byard
- Forensic Science SA; 21 Divett Place Adelaide SA 5000 Australia
- School of Medicine; The University of Adelaide; Frome Road Adelaide SA 5005
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3
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Zhou C, Yool AJ, Byard RW. An Isolated Perfused Rat Kidney Model for the Evaluation of the Effect of Glucose on Renal Tubular Epithelial Morphology. J Forensic Sci 2016; 62:126-130. [PMID: 27787885 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
An isolated perfused kidney model was used to evaluate the effect of hyperglycemia on renal tubular epithelial cell morphology. Ten Sprague-Dawley rat kidneys were perfused with Krebs-Henseleit buffer containing 70 mmol/L of glucose (five for 1 h and five for 2 h). Two control groups consisted of 10 kidneys perfused with Krebs-Henseleit buffer without hyperglycemia (five for 1 h and five for 2 h), and 10 nonperfused contralateral kidneys placed in the same environment for the same duration. The hyperglycemia group had significantly increased renal tubular vacuolization (p < 0.001) compared to both control groups at 1 and 2 h. The isolated perfused kidney model recapitulates the renal tubular vacuolization phenotype found in hyperglycemia and may be a potential tool for the investigation into causal factors in renal histology. The full pattern of the Armanni-Ebstein phenomenon was not, however, reproduced, suggesting that this change requires more time or involves more complex factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong Zhou
- The University of Adelaide School of Medicine, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.,Forensic Science SA, 21 Divett Place, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
| | - Andrea J Yool
- The University of Adelaide School of Medicine, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia
| | - Roger W Byard
- The University of Adelaide School of Medicine, Frome Road, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia.,Forensic Science SA, 21 Divett Place, Adelaide, SA, 5000, Australia
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4
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Vargas-Tendero P, Rodríguez-Gómez I, Wangensteen R, Arcas R, Quintana M, Vargas F. New method for isolation of both kidneys for studies of vascular reactivity in rats. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2013; 237:1457-61. [PMID: 23354404 DOI: 10.1258/ebm.2012.012231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The isolated perfused rat kidney technique is one of the most widely used methods in renal research. It has proven useful to investigate biochemical, physiological, pharmacological and pathophysiological aspects of renal function, allowing variables to be changed in a controlled manner and eliminating systemic influences. This study was designed to test a new surgical procedure to isolate both kidneys for their utilization in this technique, mainly as a vascular preparation. The viability of the resulting preparations was compared with those obtained by the classical method, analyzing the responsiveness to the vasoconstrictor phenylephrine and to the endothelium-dependent vasodilator acetylcholine. Vascular reactivity was evaluated under normal conditions and in endothelium-denuded preparations. The dose response curves to phenylephrine and to acetylcholine were similar in the three experimental groups, regardless of the procedure used for kidney isolation, in both endothelium-intact and endothelium-denuded preparations. We give a step-by-step description of the isolation method and key points for the success of the technique. In conclusion, the surgical procedure proposed in this paper reduces the number of animals required by half and hence reduces the cost of the experiments. This novel procedure is of special interest for acute experiments to test new vasoactive drugs and for analysis of the action mechanisms of these drugs. It could also be used in chronic studies or in genetically modified animals when different experimental protocols are performed on the left and right kidneys and to improve the accuracy of the results by analyzing cases in duplicate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Vargas-Tendero
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Granada, E-18012 Granada
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5
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Abstract
OBJECTIVES Reason for the unsuccessful use of antioxidants in transplantation might be the unknown kinetics of reactive oxygen species (ROS) release. In this study, we compared the kinetics of ROS release from rat pancreata in the presence and absence of blood. METHODS In vivo, ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) was induced in pancreata of male Wistar rats by occlusion of the arterial blood supply for 1 or 2 hours. In vitro, isolated pancreata were single-pass perfused with Krebs-Henseleit bicarbonate solution. Reactive oxygen species were quantified by electron spin resonance spectroscopy using CMH (1-hydroxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine) as spin label. Thiols (glutathione), nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase activity, myeloperoxidase activity, and adenosine triphosphate content were measured. RESULTS During reperfusion, an increase in IRI-induced ROS in arterial blood was noted after 2 hours of warm ischemia. In sharp contrast, ROS release was immediate and short lived in blood-free perfused organs. The degree of tissue damage correlated with nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase activity and adenosine triphosphate content. Antioxidative capacity of tissues was reduced. CONCLUSIONS Electron spin resonance spectroscopy in conjunction with spin labels allows for the detection of ROS kinetics in pancreatic IRI. Reactive oxygen species kinetics are dependent on the length of the ischemic period and the presence or absence of blood.
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Minor T, Efferz P, Lüer B. Hypothermic reconditioning by gaseous oxygen persufflation after cold storage of porcine kidneys. Cryobiology 2012; 65:41-4. [PMID: 22516034 DOI: 10.1016/j.cryobiol.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2011] [Revised: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Delayed graft function still represents a major complication in clinical kidney transplantation. Here we tested the possibility to improve functional outcome of cold stored kidneys a posteriori by hypothermic reconditioning using retrograde oxygen persufflation (ROP) immediately prior to reperfusion. METHODS Kidneys from female German Landrace pigs were flushed with Histidine-Tryptophan-Ketoglutarate (HTK) solution and cold-stored for 18 h (control). Some grafts were subsequently subjected to 90 min of retrograde oxygen persufflation (ROP) via the renal vein during cold preservation. Early graft function of all kidneys was assessed thereafter by warm reperfusion in vitro (n=6, resp.). RESULTS Renal function upon reperfusion was significantly enhanced by ROP with an approximately twofold increase in renal clearances of creatinine and urea. ROP also led to higher renal vascular flow rates, enhanced urine output and mitigated histological alterations. CONCLUSION It is concluded that initial graft function can be improved by 90 min of hypothermic gaseous oxygenation after arrival of the preserved organ in the transplantation clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Minor
- Surgical Research Division, University Clinic of Surgery, Bonn, Germany.
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Wang J, Evans AM, Knights KM, Miners JO. Differential disposition of intra-renal generated and preformed glucuronides: studies with 4-methylumbelliferone and 4-methylumbelliferyl glucuronide in the filtering and nonfiltering isolated perfused rat kidney. J Pharm Pharmacol 2011; 63:507-14. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2010.01244.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
This study was designed to investigate the renal disposition of 4-methylumbelliferone (4MU) and 4-methylumbelliferyl glucuronide (4MUG) to characterise the contribution of excretion and metabolic clearance to total clearance in the kidney.
Methods
The isolated perfused kidney (IPK) from the male Sprague–Dawley rat was used in filtering and non-filtering mode to study the renal disposition of 4MU, renally generated 4MUG and preformed 4MUG. Perfusate and urine (filtering IPK only) was collected for up to 120 min and 4MU and 4MUG in perfusate and urine were determined by HPLC. Analytes were also measured in kidney tissue collected at 120 min. Non-compartmental analysis was used to derive pharmacokinetic parameters.
Key findings
The concentration of 4MU in perfusate declined with a terminal half-life of approximately 120 min following administration to the filtering IPK and nonfiltering IPK. There was a corresponding increase in the concentration of 4MUG. Metabolic clearance of 4MU accounted for 92% of total renal clearance. After bolus dosing of preformed 4MUG in the perfusion reservoir of the filtering IPK, the perfusate concentration declined with the terminal half-life of approximately 260 min. The renal excretory clearance of preformed 4MUG accounted for 96% of total renal clearance. 4MU was extensively metabolized by glucuronidation in the filtering and nonfiltering IPK, and the total renal clearance of 4MU was far greater than its renal excretory clearance. This indicated that glucuronidation was the major elimination pathway for 4MU in the kidney.
Conclusions
The data confirmed an important role for the kidney in the metabolic clearance of xenobiotics via glucuronidation and signalled the lack of impact of impaired glomerular filtration on renal drug metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiping Wang
- Sansom Institute, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, SA, Australia
| | - Allan M Evans
- Sansom Institute, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, SA, Australia
| | - Kathleen M Knights
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Flinders University School of Medicine, Flinders Medical Centre, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - John O Miners
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Flinders University School of Medicine, Flinders Medical Centre, Adelaide, SA, Australia
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8
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Influence of perfusate composition on drug disposition in the in-situ perfused rat lung. Int J Pharm 2009; 382:192-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2009.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Revised: 08/20/2009] [Accepted: 08/24/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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9
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Koetting M, Frotscher C, Minor T. Hypothermic reconditioning after cold storage improves postischemic graft function in isolated porcine kidneys. Transpl Int 2009; 23:538-42. [PMID: 19951372 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-2277.2009.01014.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Delayed graft function still represents a major complication in clinical kidney transplantation. Here we tested the possibility to improve functional outcome of cold stored kidneys a posteriori by short-term hypothermic machine perfusion immediately prior to reperfusion. A total of 18 kidneys from female German Landrace pigs was flushed with Histidine-Tryptophan-Ketoglutarate solution and cold-stored for 18 h (control). Some grafts were subsequently subjected to 90 min of hypothermic reconditioning by hypothermic machine perfusion with (HR+O(2)) or without (HR-O(2)) oxygenation of the perfusate. Early graft function of all kidneys was assessed thereafter by warm reperfusion in vitro (n = 6, respectively). Renal function upon reperfusion was significantly enhanced by HR+O(2) with more than threefold increase in renal clearances of creatinine and urea. HR+O(2) also led to significantly higher urinary flow rates and abrogated the activation of caspase 3. By contrast, HR-O(2) was far less effective and only resulted in minor differences compared to control. It is derived from the present data that initial graft function can be significantly improved by 2 h of oxygenated machine perfusion after arrival of the preserved organ in the transplantation clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Koetting
- Department for General, Visceral and Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital of 1 Essen, Essen, Germany
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10
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Ma Z, Wang J, Nation RL, Li J, Turnidge JD, Coulthard K, Milne RW. Renal disposition of colistin in the isolated perfused rat kidney. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53:2857-64. [PMID: 19380593 PMCID: PMC2704651 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00030-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2009] [Revised: 03/14/2009] [Accepted: 04/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Nephrotoxicity is an important limitation to the clinical use of colistin against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and other gram-negative pathogens. Previous work reported net tubular reabsorption of colistin by the kidney in vivo, but there is no knowledge of its disposition within the kidney. This study investigated the renal disposition and potential transport mechanisms of colistin in the isolated perfused rat kidney (IPK) model by perfusing with colistin sulfate alone (2 microg/ml) or in the presence of potential inhibitors (tetraethylammonium [TEA], glycine-glycine [Gly-Gly], or hydrochloric acid [HCl]) at three different concentrations. When perfused alone, the renal clearances (CL(R)) for colistin A and B (the major components of colistin) in control kidneys were constant and low (mean values < 0.05 ml/min throughout the perfusion). The mean clearance ratios [CR, defined as CL(R)/(f(u) x GFR), where f(u) is the fraction of drug unbound in perfusate and GFR is the glomerular filtration rate] were significantly less than 1. It was concluded that there is net tubular reabsorption of colistin, and this exceeded the reabsorption of water. Less than 10% eliminated from perfusate was recovered in urine, suggesting considerable renal accumulation of colistin. The CR values for colistin were significantly increased when perfused with TEA (500 microM), Gly-Gly (833 microM), and HCl (2,500, 5,000, and 10,000 microM). It is proposed that renal reabsorption of colistin may involve organic cation transporters (inhibited by TEA) and peptide transporters (inhibited by Gly-Gly) and that the process is sensitive to the pH of urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Ma
- Sansom Institute, School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5000, Australia
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11
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Neeff HP, von Dobschuetz E, Sommer O, Hopt UT, Drognitz O. In vivo quantification of oxygen-free radical release in experimental pancreas transplantation. Transpl Int 2008; 21:1081-9. [PMID: 18699844 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-2277.2008.00740.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were drawn to the attention in the setting of organ transplantation when the 'injury hypothesis' postulated a link between oxidative stress and the activation of the innate immunity of the recipient. While the occurrence of ROS during organ transplantation is undoubted, their onset and magnitude remain largely unknown. We therefore measured ROS using a novel cyclic hydroxylamine spin probe CMH (1-hydroxy-3- methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine) during syngeneic experimental pancreas transplantation in rats in vivo. Organs were subjected to two different cold preservation methods [University of Wisconsin preservation solution (UW) or normal saline] for 18 h. During the first 90 min of reperfusion, samples were collected and analysed using electron paramagnetic resonance signalling. Isolated blood-free perfused organs (IPO) were used for comparison. Analysis showed that it is feasible to detect ROS using CMH spin probes. While IPO organs displayed a very early ROS release, there was no ROS increase in the UW preserved group compared to NaCl. These findings were in line with conventional markers of organ damage such as serum lactate, glucose, potassium as well as tissue ATP levels. CMH spin probes might become a useful tool for the in vivo animal testing of antioxidative substances in models of solid organ transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes P Neeff
- Department of General and Digestive Surgery, Transplantation Surgery, University Hospital Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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12
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Determination of colistin in human plasma, urine and other biological samples using LC–MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 862:205-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2007] [Revised: 11/29/2007] [Accepted: 12/11/2007] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Semmelmann A, Neeff H, Sommer O, Thomusch O, Hopt UT, von Dobschuetz E. Evaluation of preservation solutions by ESR-spectroscopy: superior effects of University of Wisconsin over Histidine-Tryptophan-Ketoglutarate in reducing renal reactive oxygen species. Kidney Int 2007; 71:875-81. [PMID: 17311072 DOI: 10.1038/sj.ki.5002129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Despite the causative role of oxidative stress in renal ischemia-reperfusion (I-R) injury effects of preservation solutions on reactive oxygen species (ROS) release have not been sufficiently evaluated. We compared the effects of most common solutions in kidney transplantation, University of Wisconsin (UW) and Histidine-Tryptophan-Ketoglutarate (HTK). ROS formation in isolated perfused rat kidney was detected by electron spin resonance spectroscopy using spin label 1-hydroxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrrolidine. Donor kidneys from Lewis rats were pretreated with saline (controls), in therapeutic groups, kidneys underwent 18 h of cold storage (CS) preserved by HTK or UW solution. Experimental protocol included a stabilization period followed by additional I-R. Kidneys preserved by HTK produced highest ROS values in the control period after CS, whereas levels in UW and control group did not vary significantly. A peak release induced by additional I-R was also significantly highest in HTK kidneys, and UW did not differ from controls. During reperfusion, levels in HTK exceeded control and UW values. Renal vascular resistance, caspase-3-activity, and tissue hydration were enhanced in HTK compared with UW group, whereas ATP concentration was less reduced in UW-preserved tissue. These data show the greater antioxidative potential of UW solution, which also attenuated organ impairment after CS in the early reperfusion period.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Semmelmann
- Department of General- and Visceral-Surgery, Albert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany
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Sahi J. Use ofin vitrotransporter assays to understand hepatic and renal disposition of new drug candidates. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2005; 1:409-27. [PMID: 16863453 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.1.3.409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Hepatic and renal transporters contribute to the uptake, secretion and reabsorption of endogenous compounds, xenobiotics and their metabolites and have been implicated in drug-drug interactions and toxicities. Characterising the renal and hepatic disposition of drug candidates early in development would lead to more rational drug design, as chemotypes with 'ideal' pharmacokinetic characteristics could be identified and further refined. Because transporters are often organ specific, 'custom' transporter panels need to be identified for each major organ and chemotype to be evaluated, and appropriate studies planned. This review outlines the major renal and hepatic transporters and some of the in vitro transporter reagents, assays and processes that can be used to evaluate the renal and hepatic disposition of new chemical entities during drug discovery and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasminder Sahi
- CELLZDIRECT, 480 Hillsboro Street, Pittsboro, NC 27312, USA.
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Mi FL, Peng CK, Huang MF, Lo SH, Yang CC. Preparation and characterization of N-acetylchitosan, N-propionylchitosan and N-butyrylchitosan microspheres for controlled release of 6-mercaptourine. Carbohydr Polym 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2005.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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