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Human Myometrial Contractility Assays. Methods Mol Biol 2021. [PMID: 34550566 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1759-5_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Traditional contractility assays using an organ bath setup consist of several chambers (or baths) perfused with temperature-controlled, oxygenated physiological saline. Strips or rings of tissue (usually smooth or cardiac muscle) are mounted within the organ bath between a fixed hook and an isometric force transducer. The contraction force is recorded by the transducer and different parameters of contraction are analyzed. Different experimental protocols can be performed to investigate the effect of drugs and reagents on tissue contractility to investigate tissue physiology or determine the in vivo potential of novel pharmaceutical compounds. Here, the application of a modified organ bath to measure ex vivo contractions of small strips of human uterine smooth muscle (myometrium) is described, as well as protocols to study the effect of oxytocin and uterine relaxants on contraction.
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Wiebe M, Pfarrer C, Górriz Martín L, Schmicke M, Hoedemaker M, Bollwein H, Heppelmann M. In vitro effects of lipopolysaccharides on bovine uterine contractility. Reprod Domest Anim 2020; 56:172-182. [PMID: 33170981 DOI: 10.1111/rda.13862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Metritis is an important disorder in dairy cows during the early postpartum period. Myometrial contractility is a prerequisite for uterine involution; however, very scanty literature is available about the effect of metritis on this process and endocrine responsiveness. This study was aimed to evaluate the effect of inflammation on uterine contractility in vitro, and the inflammation was induced by incubating myometrial strips with lipopolysaccharides (LPS). Myometrial samples were collected from 17 healthy Holstein Friesian cows during caesarean section. Eight longitudinal strips from each cow were incubated in organ baths with LPS concentrations of 0 (LPS0 ), 0.1 (LPS0.1 ), 1 (LPS1 ) and 10 µg/ml (LPS10 ). Spontaneous contractility and contractility induced by increasing concentrations of oxytocin (10-10 - 10-7 mol/L) were recorded during nine 30-min intervals (T1 to T9). The minimum amplitude (minA), maximum amplitude (maxA), mean amplitude (meanA) and area under the curve (AUC) were calculated for each time interval. LPS had an effect (p ≤ .05) on maxA, meanA and AUC. In T1, myometrial strips incubated with LPS0.1 and LPS1 had higher (p ≤ .05) maxA, meanA and AUC than the strips incubated with LPS0 . In T9 without oxytocin, LPS0 led to higher (p ≤ .05) maxA, meanA and AUC than LPS0.1 and LPS1 . In T8 and T9 with oxytocin, LPS1 had lower (p ≤ .05) maxA, meanA and AUC than the other LPS concentrations. Interestingly, the results show that LPS has a transient positive effect on myometrial contractility in vitro and that this effect is dependent on LPS concentration and duration of incubation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maraike Wiebe
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Christiane Pfarrer
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Lara Górriz Martín
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marion Schmicke
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Martina Hoedemaker
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany
| | - Heiner Bollwein
- Clinic for Animal Reproduction Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maike Heppelmann
- Clinic for Cattle, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover Foundation, Hannover, Germany
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Peng HY, Lai CY, Hsieh MC, Ho YC, Lin TB. Pressure-volume analysis of rat's micturition cycles in vivo. Neurourol Urodyn 2020; 39:1304-1312. [PMID: 32293055 PMCID: PMC7318613 DOI: 10.1002/nau.24363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
AIMS Though the pressure-volume analysis (PVA), a method based on thermodynamics, is broadly used for assaying cardiac functions, its potential application on the physiology/pathophysiology of the urinary bladder, which processes resemble thermodynamic cycles to the heart, has not been established. METHODS Cystometry recording intravesical pressure (IVP) and intravesical volume (IVV) of rhythmic voiding contractions caused by a constant saline infusion (0.04 mL/min) were carried out in forty urethane-anesthetized female Sprague-Dawley rats, and the PVA was established by plotting IVP against IVV. RESULTS Pressure-volume points shaped coincident enclosed loops, and loop-associated urodynamic parameters kept stable under a constant infusion rate (0.04 mL/min). Enhancing preload (by elevating infusion rates to 0.08 and 0.12 mL/min) increased the area enclosed by the loop (Apv) and shifted loops to the right and slightly upward. Augmenting afterload (by enhancing resistances using 1/4 and 1/2 urethra clamping) increased Apv and shifted loops markedly to the right and upward. Without affecting Apv, muscarine (0.01 and 0.1 mM)-induced inotropic states shifted loop to the left and upward that was as opposed to the atropine (0.01 and 0.1 mM)-induced anti-inotropic state. CONCLUSIONS Not only consistently assayed baseline bladder functions, PVA but also validly measured modified bladder functions due to altered extrinsic environment and intrinsic contractility of the bladder itself. In accompanied by cystometry, PVA could provide a clear concept about the relationship between time, pressure, and volume in the voiding activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsien-Yu Peng
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Yuan Lai
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Chun Hsieh
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Cheng Ho
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tzer-Bin Lin
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Cell Physiology and Molecular Image Research Center, Wan Fang Hospital, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Biotechnology, College of Medical and Health Science, Asia University, Taichung, Taiwan
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Organoids, organs-on-chips and other systems, and microbiota. Emerg Top Life Sci 2017; 1:385-400. [PMID: 33525777 PMCID: PMC7289039 DOI: 10.1042/etls20170047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 10/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The human gut microbiome is considered an organ in its entirety and has been the subject of extensive research due to its role in physiology, metabolism, digestion, and immune regulation. Disequilibria of the normal microbiome have been associated with the development of several gastrointestinal diseases, but the exact underlying interactions are not well understood. Conventional in vivo and in vitro modelling systems fail to faithfully recapitulate the complexity of the human host–gut microbiome, emphasising the requirement for novel systems that provide a platform to study human host–gut microbiome interactions with a more holistic representation of the human in vivo microenvironment. In this review, we outline the progression and applications of new and old modelling systems with particular focus on their ability to model and to study host–microbiome cross-talk.
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Xiang Z, Li Y, Bian T, He M, Xu Y, Wang G, Guo J, Wang H. An optimized transurethral catheterization cystometry in mice and comparison with classic suprapubic catheterization cystometry. Neurourol Urodyn 2017; 36:1965-1971. [PMID: 28169451 DOI: 10.1002/nau.23223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhuoyi Xiang
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Yaohui Li
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Tingchang Bian
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Minke He
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Yeqing Xu
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Guomin Wang
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Jianming Guo
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
| | - Hang Wang
- Department of Urology; Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University; Shanghai China
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Michel MC, Korstanje C. β3-Adrenoceptor agonists for overactive bladder syndrome: Role of translational pharmacology in a repositioning clinical drug development project. Pharmacol Ther 2016; 159:66-82. [PMID: 26808167 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2016.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
β3-Adrenoceptor agonists were originally considered as a promising drug class for the treatment of obesity and/or type 2 diabetes. When these development efforts failed, they were repositioned for the treatment of the overactive bladder syndrome. Based on the example of the β3-adrenoceptor agonist mirabegron, but also taking into consideration evidence obtained with ritobegron and solabegron, we discuss challenges facing a translational pharmacology program accompanying clinical drug development for a first-in-class molecule. Challenges included generic ones such as ligand selectivity, species differences and drug target gene polymorphisms. Challenges that are more specific included changing concepts of the underlying pathophysiology of the target condition while clinical development was under way; moreover, a paucity of public domain tools for the study of the drug target and aspects of receptor agonists as drugs had to be addressed. Nonetheless, a successful first-in-class launch was accomplished. Looking back at this translational pharmacology program, we conclude that a specifically tailored and highly flexible approach is required. However, several of the lessons learned may also be applicable to translational pharmacology programs in other indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C Michel
- Department of Pharmacology, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
| | - Cees Korstanje
- Department of Drug Discovery Science & Management-Europe, Astellas Pharma Europe R&D, Leiden, The Netherlands
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Chen YH, Lin YN, Chen WC, Hsieh WT, Chen HY. Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence by Ginsenoside Rh2. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CHINESE MEDICINE 2014; 42:817-31. [DOI: 10.1142/s0192415x14500529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is a common disorder in middle-aged women and the elderly. Although surgical treatment of SUI has progressed, there are no effective pharmacological therapies without a side effect. We studied the effect of ginsenoside Rh2 against SUI. Here, we studied the effect of ginsenoside Rh2 on the contractile force of the urethra and blood vessels in an ex vivo organ bath assay. We further investigated the mechanisms and effects of Rh2 in cell culture and animal models. Ginsenoside Rh2 dose-dependently reduced lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in RAW 264.7 cells. In the vaginal distension (VD)-induced SUI mouse model, ginsenoside Rh2 significantly reversed the VD-induced SUI physical signs and reduced blood pressure. The modulation of several SUI-related proteins, including myosin, survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, α-adrenergic receptor 1a (AdR1a), and superoxide dismutase 3 (SOD3), may play some crucial roles in the therapeutic approaches against SUI. In conclusion, the ginsenoside Rh2 may offer therapeutic potential against SUI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Hsiang Chen
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Research Center for Chinese Medicine & Acupuncture, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Departments of Medical Research, Urology, and Obstetrics and Gynecology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ning Lin
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Research Center for Chinese Medicine & Acupuncture, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Chi Chen
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Research Center for Chinese Medicine & Acupuncture, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Departments of Medical Research, Urology, and Obstetrics and Gynecology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Tsong Hsieh
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Research Center for Chinese Medicine & Acupuncture, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Huey-Yi Chen
- Graduate Institute of Integrated Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Research Center for Chinese Medicine & Acupuncture, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Departments of Medical Research, Urology, and Obstetrics and Gynecology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
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Treatment of stress urinary incontinence by cinnamaldehyde, the major constituent of the chinese medicinal herb ramulus cinnamomi. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2014; 2014:280204. [PMID: 24711852 PMCID: PMC3966347 DOI: 10.1155/2014/280204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Stress urinary incontinence (SUI) is a common disorder in middle-aged women and the elderly population. Although surgical treatment of SUI has progressed, pharmacological therapies remain unelucidated. We screened potential herbal medicines against SUI with an ex vivo organ bath assay. Ramulus Cinnamomi and its major constituent cinnamaldehyde cause a high contractile force of the urethra and a low contractile force of blood vessels. Cinnamaldehyde dose-dependently reduced lipopolysaccharide-induced nitric oxide (NO) production and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression in RAW 264.7 cells. In the vaginal distension- (VD-) induced SUI model in mice, cinnamaldehyde significantly reversed the VD-induced SUI physical signs and reduced blood pressure. Cinnamaldehyde may offer therapeutic potential against SUI without the possible side effect of hypertension. The modulation of several SUI-related proteins including myosin, iNOS, survival motor neuron (SMN) protein, and superoxide dismutase 3 (SOD3) may play some crucial roles in the therapeutic approach against SUI. This information may offer clues to the pathogenesis of SUI and open additional avenues for potential therapy strategies.
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de Almeida Prado PS, Soares MF, Lima FO, Schor N, Teixeira VPC. Amitriptyline aggravates the fibrosis process in a rat model of infravesical obstruction. Int J Exp Pathol 2012; 93:218-24. [PMID: 22563623 PMCID: PMC3385920 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2012.00813.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Infravesical obstruction (IVO) secondary to benign prostatic hypertrophy can affect up to 50% of men over 50 years old and may cause serious and irreversible alterations throughout the urinary tract, especially in the bladder. Therapeutic approaches are currently limited. Amitriptyline has recently been described as an analgesic, anti-inflammatory and myorelaxant in some experimental models. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of amitriptyline hydrochloride on the process of fibrosis in a bladder outlet obstruction model in rats. Male Wistar rats were subjected to IVO and studied at intervals of 1 and 14 days postprocedure. The rats were randomly divided into five groups: sham, IVO1-T, IVO1-NT, IVO14-T and IVO14-NT. Bladder tissue was processed for histopathology, immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR. The IVO14 groups presented bladder fibrosis, smooth muscle cell hypertrophy and bladder wall thickening. The IVO14-T group demonstrated a higher intensity of fibrosis, higher macrophage infiltration rate and higher gene expression of Transforming growth factor (TGF) Tgf-β1. Thus this data shows that in this experimental mode amitriptyline had an amplifying effect on the process of fibrosis as a whole.
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Andersson KE, Soler R, Füllhase C. Rodent models for urodynamic investigation. Neurourol Urodyn 2011; 30:636-46. [PMID: 21661007 DOI: 10.1002/nau.21108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Rodents, most commonly rats, mice, and guinea pigs are widely used to investigate urinary storage and voiding functions, both in normal animals and in models of disease. An often used methodology is cystometry. Micturitions in rodents and humans differ significantly and this must be considered when cystometry is used to interpret voiding in rodent models. Cystometry in humans requires active participation of the investigated patient (subject), and this can for obvious reasons not be achieved in the animals. Cystometric parameters in rodents are often poorly defined and do not correspond to those used in humans. This means that it is important that the terminology used for description of what is measured should be defined, and that the specific terminology used in human cystometry should be avoided. Available disease models in rodents have limited translational value, but despite many limitations, rodent cystometry may give important information on bladder physiology and pharmacology. The present review discusses the principles of urodynamics in rodents, techniques, and terminology, as well as some commonly used disease models, and their translational value.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl-Erik Andersson
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine, Wake Forest University, Winston Salem, NC, USA.
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Michel MC, Chapple CR. Basic mechanisms of urgency: roles and benefits of pharmacotherapy. World J Urol 2009; 27:705-9. [PMID: 19588154 PMCID: PMC2780647 DOI: 10.1007/s00345-009-0446-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2009] [Accepted: 06/19/2009] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Since urgency is key to the overactive bladder syndrome, we have reviewed the mechanisms underlying how bladder filling and urgency are sensed, what causes urgency and how this relates to medical therapy. MATERIALS AND METHODS Review of published literature. RESULTS As urgency can only be assessed in cognitively intact humans, mechanistic studies of urgency often rely on proxy or surrogate parameters, such as detrusor overactivity, but these may not necessarily be reliable. There is an increasing evidence base to suggest that the sensation of ‘urgency’ differs from the normal physiological urge to void upon bladder filling. While the relative roles of alterations in afferent processes, central nervous processing, efferent mechanisms and in intrinsic bladder smooth muscle function remain unclear, and not necessarily mutually exclusive, several lines of evidence support an important role for the latter. CONCLUSIONS A better understanding of urgency and its causes may help to develop more effective treatments for voiding dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Christian Michel
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Michel MC, Chapple CR. Basic Mechanisms of Urgency: Preclinical and Clinical Evidence. Eur Urol 2009; 56:298-307. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2009.05.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2009] [Accepted: 05/12/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Saban MR, Hellmich HL, Turner M, Nguyen NB, Vadigepalli R, Dyer DW, Hurst RE, Centola M, Saban R. The inflammatory and normal transcriptome of mouse bladder detrusor and mucosa. BMC PHYSIOLOGY 2006; 6:1. [PMID: 16420690 PMCID: PMC1382248 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6793-6-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2005] [Accepted: 01/18/2006] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Background An organ such as the bladder consists of complex, interacting set of tissues and cells. Inflammation has been implicated in every major disease of the bladder, including cancer, interstitial cystitis, and infection. However, scanty is the information about individual detrusor and urothelium transcriptomes in response to inflammation. Here, we used suppression subtractive hybridizations (SSH) to determine bladder tissue- and disease-specific genes and transcriptional regulatory elements (TRE)s. Unique TREs and genes were assembled into putative networks. Results It was found that the control bladder mucosa presented regulatory elements driving genes such as myosin light chain phosphatase and calponin 1 that influence the smooth muscle phenotype. In the control detrusor network the Pax-3 TRE was significantly over-represented. During development, the Pax-3 transcription factor (TF) maintains progenitor cells in an undifferentiated state whereas, during inflammation, Pax-3 was suppressed and genes involved in neuronal development (synapsin I) were up-regulated. Therefore, during inflammation, an increased maturation of neural progenitor cells in the muscle may underlie detrusor instability. NF-κB was specifically over-represented in the inflamed mucosa regulatory network. When the inflamed detrusor was compared to control, two major pathways were found, one encoding synapsin I, a neuron-specific phosphoprotein, and the other an important apoptotic protein, siva. In response to LPS-induced inflammation, the liver X receptor was over-represented in both mucosa and detrusor regulatory networks confirming a role for this nuclear receptor in LPS-induced gene expression. Conclusion A new approach for understanding bladder muscle-urothelium interaction was developed by assembling SSH, real time PCR, and TRE analysis results into regulatory networks. Interestingly, some of the TREs and their downstream transcripts originally involved in organogenesis and oncogenesis were also activated during inflammation. The latter represents an additional link between inflammation and cancer. The regulatory networks represent key targets for development of novel drugs targeting bladder diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia R Saban
- Department of Physiology, The University Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
| | - Helen L Hellmich
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, USA
| | - Mary Turner
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF), Arthritis and Immunology Research Program, Microarray Core Facility, Oklahoma City, USA
| | - Ngoc-Bich Nguyen
- Department of Physiology, The University Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
- Cellular & Structural Biology, The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, USA
| | - Rajanikanth Vadigepalli
- Daniel Baugh Institute for Functional Genomics and Computational Biology. Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, USA
| | - David W Dyer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Laboratory for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Oklahoma University Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
| | - Robert E Hurst
- Department of Urology, The University Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
| | - Michael Centola
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation (OMRF), Arthritis and Immunology Research Program, Microarray Core Facility, Oklahoma City, USA
| | - Ricardo Saban
- Department of Physiology, The University Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, USA
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Pugsley MK. Safety pharmacology matures into a unique pharmacological discipline. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2004; 49:137-9. [PMID: 15172008 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2004.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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