First evidence of hemoplasma infection in free-ranging Namibian cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus)

Worldwide occurrence of haemoplasmas in wildlife: Insights into the patterns of infection, transmission, pathology and zoonotic potential

Haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) have increasingly attracted the attention of wildlife disease researchers due to a combination of wide host range, high prevalence and genetic diversity. A systematic review identified 75 articles that investigated haemoplasma infection in wildlife by molecular methods (chiefly targeting partial 16S rRNA gene sequences), which included 131 host genera across six orders. Studies were less common in the Eastern Hemisphere (especially Africa and Asia) and more frequent in the Artiodactyla and Carnivora. Meta-analysis showed that infection prevalence did not vary by geographic region nor host order, but wild hosts showed significantly higher prevalence than captive hosts. Using a taxonomically flexible machine learning algorithm, we also found vampire bats and cervids to have greater prevalence, whereas mink, a subclade of vesper bats, and true foxes all had lower prevalence compared to the remaining sampled mammal phylogeny. Haemoplasma genotype and nucleotide diversity varied little among wild mammals but were marginally lower in primates and bats. Coinfection with more than one haemoplasma species or genotype was always confirmed when assessed. Risk factors of infection identified were sociality, age, males and high trophic levels, and both prevalence and diversity were often higher in undisturbed environments. Haemoplasmas likely use different and concurrent transmission routes and typically display enzootic dynamics when wild populations are studied longitudinally. Haemoplasma pathology is poorly known in wildlife but appears subclinical. Candidatus Mycoplasma haematohominis, which causes disease in humans, probably has it natural host in bats. Haemoplasmas can serve as a model system in ecological and evolutionary studies, and future research on these pathogens in wildlife must focus on increasing the geographic range and taxa of studies and elucidating pathology, transmission and zoonotic potential. To facilitate such work, we recommend using universal PCR primers or NGS protocols to detect novel haemoplasmas and other genetic markers to differentiate among species and infer cross-species transmission.

African Lions and Zoonotic Diseases: Implications for Commercial Lion Farms in South Africa

Simple Summary

In South Africa, thousands of African lions are bred on farms for commercial purposes, such as tourism, trophy hunting, and traditional medicine. Lions on farms often have direct contact with people, such as farm workers and tourists. Such close contact between wild animals and humans creates opportunities for the spread of zoonotic diseases (diseases that can be passed between animals and people). To help understand the health risks associated with lion farms, our study compiled a list of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, parasites, and fungi) known to affect African lions. We reviewed 148 scientific papers and identified a total of 63 pathogens recorded in both wild and captive lions, most of which were parasites (35, 56%), followed by viruses (17, 27%) and bacteria (11, 17%). This included pathogens that can be passed from lions to other animals and to humans. We also found a total of 83 diseases and clinical symptoms associated with these pathogens. Given that pathogens and their associated infectious diseases can cause harm to both animals and public health, we recommend that the lion farming industry in South Africa takes action to prevent and manage potential disease outbreaks.

Abstract

African lions (Panthera leo) are bred in captivity on commercial farms across South Africa and often have close contact with farm staff, tourists, and other industry workers. As transmission of zoonotic diseases occurs through close proximity between wildlife and humans, these commercial captive breeding operations pose a potential risk to thousands of captive lions and to public health. An understanding of pathogens known to affect lions is needed to effectively assess the risk of disease emergence and transmission within the industry. Here, we conduct a systematic search of the academic literature, identifying 148 peer-reviewed studies, to summarize the range of pathogens and parasites known to affect African lions. A total of 63 pathogenic organisms were recorded, belonging to 35 genera across 30 taxonomic families. Over half were parasites (35, 56%), followed by viruses (17, 27%) and bacteria (11, 17%). A number of novel pathogens representing unidentified and undescribed species were also reported. Among the pathogenic inventory are species that can be transmitted from lions to other species, including humans. In addition, 83 clinical symptoms and diseases associated with these pathogens were identified. Given the risks posed by infectious diseases, this research highlights the potential public health risks associated with the captive breeding industry. We recommend that relevant authorities take imminent action to help prevent and manage the risks posed by zoonotic pathogens on lion farms.

High diversity of hemotropic mycoplasmas in Iberian wild carnivores

Two-hundred and thirty-one wild carnivores belonging to 10 species of in Spain were analyzed for the presence of DNA of hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) by means of a universal real-time PCR targeting a 16S rRNA gene fragment. Positive reactions were found for wolf (Canis lupus: 6/37), fox (Vulpes vulpes: 1/41), Eurasian badger (Meles meles: 49/85), pine marten (Martes martes: 11/23), stone marten (Martes foina: 6/9), least weasel (Mustela nivalis: 4/4), European wildcat (Felis s. silvestris: 1/2) and common genet (Genetta genetta: 7/27). Sixty-four readable sequences were obtained, resulting in 14 nucleotide sequence types (ntST). The highest diversity was detected in badger (6 ntST) and pine marten (5 ntST). The sequencing of a fragment of the RNase P gene showed that all positive reactions in wolves corresponded to Mycoplasma haemocanis. Three ntST showed an identity between 98-100% with Candidatus M. haemominutum, C. M. turicensis and C. M. haematoparvum, respectively. Four ntST were closely related to C. M. haemomeles and/or diverse genotypes reported from raccoons (Procyon lotor) in the USA. One ntST from a badger showed only 88% similarity to the closest published sequence and was phylogenetically unrelated to any other hemoplasma sequence reported. Three ntST were 99-100% similar to two different sequences reported in Spanish bats. This study confirms the widespread nature and the high genetic diversity of hemoplasma infection in carnivores. Wild carnivores might be natural hosts of some hemoplasmas infecting dogs and cats.

Molecular detection of Bartonella species and haemoplasmas in wild African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) in Mozambique, Africa

The African buffalo (Syncerus caffer), a mammal species whose population is declining, can play a role as a reservoir or carrier of a wide number of arthropod-borne pathogens. Translocation procedures have been used as an alternative approach for species conservation. However, the veterinary aspects of this sort of procedures are extremely important to minimize the impact on animal health. In order to detectBartonellaand haemoplasmas, two important group of bacterial that have an impact in both human and animal health, EDTA whole-blood samples were screened for the presence of these bacterial pathogens by molecular techniques. As a result, a molecular occurrence of 4.1 and 15.4% forBartonellaspp. and haemoplasmas, respectively, was reported among 97 wild buffaloes sampled during a translocation procedure from Marromeu to Gorongosa Reserve, Mozambique. Additionally, phylogenetic analyses of the obtained sequences were conducted. At least, three bovine-associated pathogens, namelyB. bovis,M. wenyoniiand ‘CandidatusM. haemobos’, as well as a probably newBartonellagenotype/species were detected inS. caffer.Further studies are needed in order to determine whether these bacterial species may cause impact in buffaloes and other sympatric ruminant species living in the release site.

Detection and molecular characterization of feline hemoplasmas in wild felid species in Iran in the Middle East

•

First description of feline hemoplasma and immunodeficiency virus in endangered Persian Leopard species in Iran, Middle East.

•

No zoo-kept wild felids were infected.

•

Close sequence identity with hemoplasma isolates from domestic and wild felids in Iran and other geographical origins.

•

Both ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ infected leopards were old and male and were not born nor residing in zoos.

Three feline hemoplasma species exist in felids: Mycoplasma haemofelis, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’, and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’.

The aims of the study were to determine the presence of, and molecularly characterize, any hemoplasmas in wild felids, including the endangered Persian leopard in Iran, the Middle East.

Blood samples were collected from 19 wild felids, including three Persian leopards. Using species-specific hemoplasma PCRs and ELISA serological testing for feline leukaemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), two Persian leopards were found to be infected with ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ and were seropositive for FIV. Partial 16S rRNA gene sequences were generated for these ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ species and subsequent phylogenetic analysis revealed 97.70% to 99.45% sequence identity with those found in domestic cats from Iran and other countries.

This study confirms the presence of ‘Ca. M. haemominutum’ and concurrent FIV antibody in wild felids in Iran. This represents the first report of hemoplasma in wild felids in the Middle East as well as the first report of infection in Persian leopards.

Prevalence, Genotype Richness, and Coinfection Patterns of Hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Raccoons (Procyon lotor) on Environmentally Protected and Urbanized Barrier Islands

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are successful urban adapters and hosts to a number of zoonotic and nonzoonotic pathogens, yet little is known about their hemoplasma infections and how prevalence varies across habitat types. This study identifies hemotropic Mycoplasma species infection in raccoons from urban and undisturbed habitats and compares hemoplasma infection in sympatric urban cats (Felis catus) from the same geographic region. We collected blood from raccoons (n = 95) on an urban coastal island (n = 37) and an undisturbed coastal island (n = 58) and from sympatric urban cats (n = 39) in Georgia, USA. Based on 16S rRNA gene amplification, 62.1% (59/95) of raccoons and 17.9% (7/39) of feral cats were positive for hemoplasma. There was a greater percentage of hemoplasma-infected raccoons on the undisturbed island (79.3% [46/58]) than on the urban island (35.1% [13/37]; χ2 = 16.9, df = 1, P = 0.00004). Sequencing of the full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed six hemoplasma genotypes in raccoons, including five novel genotypes that were distinct from three known hemoplasma species identified in the sympatric cats. In addition, the hemoplasma genotypes detected in raccoons were not identified in sympatric cats or vice versa. Although all six hemoplasma genotypes were found in raccoons from urban and undisturbed islands, coinfection patterns differed between sites and among individuals, with the proportion of coinfected raccoons being greater in the undisturbed site. This study shows that raccoons are hosts for several novel hemoplasmas and that habitat type influences infection patterns.IMPORTANCE This study provides information about novel hemoplasmas identified in raccoons (Procyon lotor), which can be used for assessments of the prevalence of these hemoplasmas in raccoon populations and for future studies on the potential pathogenic impacts of these hemoplasmas on raccoon health. Raccoons from the undisturbed habitat had a higher prevalence of hemoplasma infection than urban raccoons. There does not appear to be cross-species transmission of hemotropic mycoplasmas between urban raccoons and feral cats. Raccoons appear to be hosts for several novel hemoplasmas, and habitat type influences infection patterns.

Molecular detection of haemotropic Mycoplasma species in urban and rural cats from Portugal

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to evaluate the prevalence of haemoplasma infection in cats in Portugal and to assess risk factors for infection.

METHODS

Real-time polymerase chain reaction techniques were used to assess 236 urban and rural cats from central and southern Portugal.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of haemoplasma in the target population was 27.1% (64/236), with individual species' prevalences as follows: 17.8% (42/236) 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMhm), 14.4% (34/236) Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf) and only 5.9% (14/236) 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' (CMt). Multiple infections were detected in 8.1% (19/236) of the samples, with triple and double infections with Mhf and CMhm being most commonly detected (5.9% [14/236] of cats). Haemoplasma infection was significantly higher in shelter cats (P = 0.015) than in cats with other lifestyles (eg, free-roaming/house pet/blood donors). Haemoplasma prevalence was also higher in cats with feline immunodeficiency virus infection (FIV; P = 0.011). Although sex was not significantly associated with haemoplasma infection (P = 0.050), CMt was predominantly found in males (P = 0.032). Also, the presence of haemoplasma multiple infections was statistically associated with being in a shelter (P = 0.021), male (P = 0.057) and with FIV co-infection (P = 0.004). No evidence of an association between haemoplasma infection and geographical location, age or feline leukaemia virus co-infection was found.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The results obtained in our study are consistent with the documented worldwide prevalence of feline haemoplasma infections, suggesting that the three main feline haemoplasma species are common in Portugal.