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Zhang G, Hu H, Yin Y, Tian M, Bu Z, Ding C, Yu S. Brucella Manipulates Host Cell Ferroptosis to Facilitate Its Intracellular Replication and Egress in RAW264.7 Macrophages. Antioxidants (Basel) 2024; 13:577. [PMID: 38790682 PMCID: PMC11118192 DOI: 10.3390/antiox13050577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Brucella virulence relies on its successful intracellular life cycle. Modulating host cell death is a strategy for Brucella to survive and replicate intracellularly. Ferroptosis is a novel regulated cell death characterized by iron-triggered excessive lipid peroxidation, which has been proven to be associated with pathogenic bacteria infection. Thus, we attempted to explore if smooth-type Brucella infection triggers host cell ferroptosis and what role it plays in Brucella infection. We assessed the effects of Brucella infection on the lactate dehydrogenase release and lipid peroxidation levels of RAW264.7 macrophages; subsequently, we determined the effect of Brucella infection on the expressions of ferroptosis defense pathways. Furthermore, we determined the role of host cell ferroptosis in the intracellular replication and egress of Brucella. The results demonstrated that Brucella M5 could induce ferroptosis of macrophages by inhibiting the GPX4-GSH axis at the late stage of infection but mitigated ferroptosis by up-regulating the GCH1-BH4 axis at the early infection stage. Moreover, elevating host cell ferroptosis decreased Brucella intracellular survival and suppressing host cell ferroptosis increased Brucella intracellular replication and egress. Collectively, Brucella may manipulate host cell ferroptosis to facilitate its intracellular replication and egress, extending our knowledge about the underlying mechanism of how Brucella completes its intracellular life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangdong Zhang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (G.Z.); (H.H.); (Y.Y.); (M.T.)
- Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Harbin 150069, China;
| | - Hai Hu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (G.Z.); (H.H.); (Y.Y.); (M.T.)
| | - Yi Yin
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (G.Z.); (H.H.); (Y.Y.); (M.T.)
| | - Mingxing Tian
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (G.Z.); (H.H.); (Y.Y.); (M.T.)
| | - Zhigao Bu
- Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Harbin 150069, China;
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (G.Z.); (H.H.); (Y.Y.); (M.T.)
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Shengqing Yu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (G.Z.); (H.H.); (Y.Y.); (M.T.)
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Hu H, Zhang G, Tian M, Guan X, Yin Y, Ding C, Yu S. Brucella abortus Rough-Type Mutant Induces Ferroptosis and More Oxidative Stress in Infected Macrophages. Pathogens 2023; 12:1189. [PMID: 37887705 PMCID: PMC10609801 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12101189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucella is an intracellular parasitic bacterium that uses multiple strategies to evade the host's defense mechanisms. However, how Brucella manipulates the host-induced oxidative stress and relevant biological processes are still poorly understood. In this study, a comparative transcriptome assay of macrophages infected with Brucella abortus S2308 and its rough mutant RB14 was performed to investigate the differentially expressed genes which might be associated with the pathogenic mechanism of Brucella. Our results showed that numerous host pro-oxidative and antioxidative stress genes were differentially expressed in macrophages infected with B. abortus S2308 and mutant RB14 at 4, 8, 24, and 48 h post-infection. Interestingly, we found that several ferroptosis-associated genes were differentially expressed during B. abortus RB14 infection. Moreover, we found that the rough mutant RB14-induced macrophage death was associated with reduced levels of host glutathione and glutathione peroxidase 4, together with increased free iron, lipid peroxidation, and ROS, all of which are important hallmarks of ferroptosis. The ferroptosis occurring during infection with RB14 was reduced by treatment with the inhibitor ferrostatin-1. However, B. abortus S2308 infection did not induce these hallmarks of ferroptosis. Taken together, our results demonstrate that ferroptosis is involved in rough B. abortus infection. Investigating how Brucella manipulates oxidative stress and ferroptosis in its host will be helpful to clarify the pathogenicity of B. abortus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Hu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Guangdong Zhang
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Mingxing Tian
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Xiang Guan
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Yi Yin
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Chan Ding
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
| | - Shengqing Yu
- Shanghai Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Shanghai 200241, China; (H.H.); (G.Z.); (M.T.); (X.G.); (Y.Y.)
- Veterinary Bio-Pharmaceutical, Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High-Tech Research and Development of Veterinary Biopharmaceuticals, Jiangsu Agri-Animal Husbandry Vocational College, Taizhou 225300, China
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Guo X, Zeng H, Li M, Xiao Y, Gu G, Song Z, Shuai X, Guo J, Huang Q, Zhou B, Chu Y, Jiao H. The mechanism of chronic intracellular infection with Brucella spp. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1129172. [PMID: 37143745 PMCID: PMC10151771 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1129172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Globally, brucellosis is a widespread zoonotic disease. It is prevalent in more than 170 countries and regions. It mostly damages an animal's reproductive system and causes extreme economic losses to the animal husbandry industry. Once inside cells, Brucella resides in a vacuole, designated the BCV, which interacts with components of the endocytic and secretory pathways to ensure bacterial survival. Numerous studies conducted recently have revealed that Brucella's ability to cause a chronic infection depends on how it interacts with the host. This paper describes the immune system, apoptosis, and metabolic control of host cells as part of the mechanism of Brucella survival in host cells. Brucella contributes to both the body's non-specific and specific immunity during chronic infection, and it can aid in its survival by causing the body's immune system to become suppressed. In addition, Brucella regulates apoptosis to avoid being detected by the host immune system. The BvrR/BvrS, VjbR, BlxR, and BPE123 proteins enable Brucella to fine-tune its metabolism while also ensuring its survival and replication and improving its ability to adapt to the intracellular environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyi Guo
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hui Zeng
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Mengjuan Li
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yu Xiao
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Guojing Gu
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Zhenhui Song
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuehong Shuai
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jianhua Guo
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Qingzhou Huang
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
| | - Bo Zhou
- Changchun Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changchun, Jilin, China
- *Correspondence: Bo Zhou, ; Yuefeng Chu, ; Hanwei Jiao,
| | - Yuefeng Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
- *Correspondence: Bo Zhou, ; Yuefeng Chu, ; Hanwei Jiao,
| | - Hanwei Jiao
- The College of Veterinary Medicine, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- The Immunology Research Center, Medical Research Institute, Southwest University, Chongqing, China
- *Correspondence: Bo Zhou, ; Yuefeng Chu, ; Hanwei Jiao,
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Li C, Wang J, Sun W, Liu X, Wang J, Peng Q. The Brucella Effector BspI Suppresses Inflammation via Inhibition of IRE1 Kinase Activity during Brucella Infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 209:488-497. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Mammalian GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) can inhibit innate immunity signaling in a spatiotemporal fashion; however, the role of bacterial GAPs in mediating innate immunity remains unknown. In this study, we show that BspI, a Brucella type IV secretion system (T4SS) effector protein, containing a GAP domain at the C terminus, negatively regulates proinflammatory responses and host protection to Brucella abotus infection in a mouse model. In macrophages, BspI inhibits the activation of inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) kinase, but it does not inhibit activation of ATF6 and PERK. BspI suppresses induction of proinflammatory cytokines via inhibiting the activity of IRE1 kinase caused by VceC, a type IV secretion system effector protein that localizes to the endoplasmic reticulum. Ectopically expressed BspI interacts with IRE1 in HeLa cells. The inhibitory function of BspI depends on its GAP domain but not on interaction with small GTPase Ras-associated binding protein 1B (RAB1B). Collectively, these data support a model where BspI, in a GAP domain–dependent manner, inhibits activation of IRE1 to prevent proinflammatory cytokine responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Li
- *Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jingyu Wang
- *Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Wanchun Sun
- *Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Xiaofeng Liu
- †Tumor Hospital of Jilin Province, Changchun, China; and
| | - Jun Wang
- §Shenzhen Center for Chronic Disease Control, Shenzhen, China
| | - Qisheng Peng
- *Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Ma Z, Deng X, Li R, Hu R, Miao Y, Xu Y, Zheng W, Yi J, Wang Z, Wang Y, Chen C. Crosstalk of Brucella abortus nucleomodulin BspG and host DNA replication process/mitochondrial respiratory pathway promote anti-apoptosis and infection. Vet Microbiol 2022; 268:109414. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Kazemi S, Mirzaei R, Sholeh M, Karampoor S, Keramat F, Saidijam M, Alikhani MY. microRNAs in human brucellosis: A promising therapeutic approach and biomarker for diagnosis and treatment. IMMUNITY INFLAMMATION AND DISEASE 2021; 9:1209-1218. [PMID: 34449979 PMCID: PMC8589381 DOI: 10.1002/iid3.519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2021] [Revised: 08/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Introduction Human brucellosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease with up to 500,000 new cases each year. The major evasion mechanisms from the host immune system by Brucella are restraint of complement pathway and Toll‐like receptors signaling pathways, interference with efficient antigen presentation to CD4‐positive T lymphocytes, selective subversion of autophagy pathways, inhibition of dendritic cell stimulation, inhibition of autophagolysosomal fusion, and macrophage apoptosis. Many molecular and cellular pathways contribute to brucellosis that microRNAs have a vital function in the immunopathogenesis of this disease. In this regard, these molecules apply for their roles by modulating various events like inflammatory reactions and immune defense. Recently, in the case of immunity to human brucellosis, it has been shown that microRNAs play an important role in immunity against these bacteria. Methods and Results In this study, we tried to review the immune defense and immunopathogenesis of Brucella infection and highlight the current knowledge of the microRNAs in infected cells by Brucella pathogens. The recent findings suggest that the regulation of microRNAs expression is impaired during brucellosis infection, which may contribute to disease progression or inhibition by modulating immune responses against this pathogen. Conclusions The interplay between miRNAs and Brucella pathogens and the underlying process required comprehensive examination to unravel the novel therapeutic or diagnostic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sima Kazemi
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Rasoul Mirzaei
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Sholeh
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sajad Karampoor
- Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases Research Center, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Virology, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fariba Keramat
- Brucellosis Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Massoud Saidijam
- Research Center for Molecular Medicine, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Mohammad Yousef Alikhani
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.,Brucellosis Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
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Ma Z, Li R, Hu R, Deng X, Xu Y, Zheng W, Yi J, Wang Y, Chen C. Brucella abortus BspJ Is a Nucleomodulin That Inhibits Macrophage Apoptosis and Promotes Intracellular Survival of Brucella. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:599205. [PMID: 33281799 PMCID: PMC7688787 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.599205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, a variety of Brucella effector proteins have been found to mediate host cell secretion, autophagy, inflammation, and other signal pathways, but nuclear effector proteins have not yet been reported. We identified the first Brucella nucleomodulin, BspJ, and we screened out the BspJ interaction host proteins NME/NM23 nucleoside diphosphate kinase 2 (NME2) and creatine kinase B (CKB) through yeast two-hybrid and co-immunoprecipitation assays. These proteins are related to the host cell energy synthesis, metabolism, and apoptosis pathways. Brucella nucleomodulin BspJ will decrease the expression level of NME2 and CKB. In addition, BspJ gene deletion strains promoted the apoptosis of macrophages and reduced the intracellular survival of Brucella in host cells. In short, we found nucleomodulin BspJ may directly or indirectly regulate host cell apoptosis through the interaction with NME2 and CKB by mediating energy metabolism pathways in response to the intracellular circulation of Brucella infection, but the mechanism needs further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongchen Ma
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Ruirui Li
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Ruirui Hu
- College of Life Science, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Xiaoyu Deng
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Yimei Xu
- Xinjiang Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Urumqi, China
| | - Wei Zheng
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Jihai Yi
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Yong Wang
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
| | - Chuangfu Chen
- International Joint Research Center for Animal Health Breeding, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of High Incidence Zoonotic Infectious Diseases in Western China, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
- Key Laboratory of Control and Prevention of Animal Disease, Xinjiang Production & Construction Corps, College of Animal Science and Technology, Shihezi University, Shihezi, China
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Abstract
Brucella spp. are Gram negative intracellular bacteria responsible for brucellosis, a worldwide distributed zoonosis. A prominent aspect of the Brucella life cycle is its ability to invade, survive and multiply within host cells. Comprehensive approaches, such as proteomics, have aided in unravelling the molecular mechanisms underlying Brucella pathogenesis. Technological and methodological advancements such as increased instrument performance and multiplexed quantification have broadened the range of proteome studies, enabling new and improved analyses, providing deeper and more accurate proteome coverage. Indeed, proteomics has demonstrated its contribution to key research questions in Brucella biology, i.e., immunodominant proteins, host-cell interaction, stress response, antibiotic targets and resistance, protein secretion. Here, we review the proteomics of Brucella with a focus on more recent works and novel findings, ranging from reconfiguration of the intracellular bacterial proteome and studies on proteomic profiles of Brucella infected tissues, to the identification of Brucella extracellular proteins with putative roles in cell signaling and pathogenesis. In conclusion, proteomics has yielded copious new candidates and hypotheses that require future verification. It is expected that proteomics will continue to be an invaluable tool for Brucella and applications will further extend to the currently ill-explored aspects including, among others, protein processing and post-translational modification.
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Yang J, Li H, Wang Z, Yu L, Liu Q, Niu X, Xu T, Wang Z. Dihydroartemisinin inhibits multiplication of Brucella suis vaccine strain 2 in murine microglia BV2 cells via stimulation of caspase‑dependent apoptosis. Mol Med Rep 2019; 20:4067-4072. [PMID: 31545433 PMCID: PMC6797990 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucellosis, caused by a facultative intracellular parasite Brucella species, is the most common bacterial zoonotic infection worldwide. Brucella can survive and proliferate in several phagocytic and non‑phagocytic cell types. Human brucellosis has similar clinical symptoms with systemic diseases, which may lead to delay of diagnosis and increasing of complications. Therefore, investigating the proliferation of Brucella in host cells is important to understand the pathogenesis of the disease. Dihydroartemisinin (DHA), a semi‑synthetic derivative of artemisinin, has been recommended by World Health Organization as an anti‑malarial drug. However, there have been few studies regarding its effectiveness against bacteria. In the present study, it was revealed that B. suis vaccine strain 2 (S2) grew in BV2 cells without significant cytotoxicity, and less than 20 µM DHA had no inhibitory effects on BV2 cells. Furthermore, DHA reduced B. suis S2 growth in BV2 cells, and increased the percentage of apoptosis and the expression of cleaved caspase‑3 in B. suis S2‑infected cells. Collectively, the present data indicated that DHA induced the caspase‑dependent apoptotic pathway to inhibit the intracellular B. suis S2 growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Yang
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Haining Li
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Zhao Wang
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Liming Yu
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyan Niu
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Ting Xu
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
| | - Zhenhai Wang
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Ningxia Medical University, Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 750004, P.R. China
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Abstract
Bacteria of the genus Brucella colonize a wide variety of mammalian hosts, in which their infectious cycle and ability to cause disease predominantly rely on an intracellular lifestyle within phagocytes. Upon entry into host cells, Brucella organisms undergo a complex, multistage intracellular cycle in which they sequentially traffic through, and exploit functions of, the endocytic, secretory, and autophagic compartments via type IV secretion system (T4SS)-mediated delivery of bacterial effectors. These effectors modulate an array of host functions and machineries to first promote conversion of the initial endosome-like Brucella-containing vacuole (eBCV) into a replication-permissive organelle derived from the host endoplasmic reticulum (rBCV) and then to an autophagy-related vacuole (aBCV) that mediates bacterial egress. Here we detail and discuss our current knowledge of cellular and molecular events of the Brucella intracellular cycle. We discuss the importance of the endosomal stage in determining T4SS competency, the roles of autophagy in rBCV biogenesis and aBCV formation, and T4SS-driven mechanisms of modulation of host secretory traffic in rBCV biogenesis and bacterial egress.
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Mitochondrial fragmentation affects neither the sensitivity to TNFα-induced apoptosis of Brucella-infected cells nor the intracellular replication of the bacteria. Sci Rep 2018; 8:5173. [PMID: 29581535 PMCID: PMC5979954 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-23483-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are complex organelles that participate in many cellular functions, ranging from ATP production to immune responses against viruses and bacteria. This integration of a plethora of functions within a single organelle makes mitochondria a very attractive target to manipulate for intracellular pathogens. We characterised the crosstalk that exists between Brucella abortus, the causative agent of brucellosis, and the mitochondria of infected cells. Brucella replicates in a compartment derived from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and modulates ER functionality by activating the unfolded protein response. However, the impact of Brucella on the mitochondrial population of infected cells still requires a systematic study. We observed physical contacts between Brucella containing vacuoles and mitochondria. We also found that B. abortus replication is independent of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and that mitochondrial reactive oxygen species do not participate to the control of B. abortus infection in vitro. We demonstrated that B. abortus and B. melitensis induce a drastic mitochondrial fragmentation at 48 hours post-infection in different cell types, including myeloid and non-myeloid cells. This fragmentation is DRP1-independent and might be caused by a deficit of mitochondrial fusion. However, mitochondrial fragmentation does not change neither Brucella replication efficiency, nor the susceptibility of infected cells to TNFα-induced apoptosis.
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12
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Roset MS, Alefantis TG, DelVecchio VG, Briones G. Iron-dependent reconfiguration of the proteome underlies the intracellular lifestyle of Brucella abortus. Sci Rep 2017; 7:10637. [PMID: 28878308 PMCID: PMC5587712 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-11283-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Brucella ssp. is a facultative intracellular pathogen that causes brucellosis, a worldwide zoonosis that affects a wide range of mammals including humans. A critical step for the establishment of a successful Brucella infection is its ability to survive within macrophages. To further understand the mechanisms that Brucella utilizes to adapt to an intracellular lifestyle, a differential proteomic study was performed for the identification of intracellular modulated proteins. Our results demonstrated that at 48 hours post-infection Brucella adjusts its metabolism in order to survive intracellularly by modulating central carbon metabolism. Remarkably, low iron concentration is likely the dominant trigger for reprogramming the protein expression profile. Up-regulation of proteins dedicated to reduce the concentration of reactive oxygen species, protein chaperones that prevent misfolding of proteins, and proteases that degrade toxic protein aggregates, suggest that Brucella protects itself from damage likely due to oxidative burst. This proteomic analysis of B. abortus provides novel insights into the mechanisms utilized by Brucella to establish an intracellular persistent infection and will aid in the development of new control strategies and novel targets for antimicrobial therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Roset
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín, IIB-INTECH-CONICET, San Martín 1650, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - T G Alefantis
- Vital Probes Inc., 1820 N. E.27th Drive, Wilton Manors, Florida, USA.,Sanofi Pasteur, 1 Discovery Drive, Swiftwater, PA, USA
| | - V G DelVecchio
- Vital Probes Inc., 1820 N. E.27th Drive, Wilton Manors, Florida, USA
| | - G Briones
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín, IIB-INTECH-CONICET, San Martín 1650, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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13
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Mittal R, Lisi CV, Kumari H, Grati M, Blackwelder P, Yan D, Jain C, Mathee K, Weckwerth PH, Liu XZ. Otopathogenic Pseudomonas aeruginosa Enters and Survives Inside Macrophages. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1828. [PMID: 27917157 PMCID: PMC5114284 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Otitis media (OM) is a broad term describing a group of infectious and inflammatory disorders of the middle ear. Despite antibiotic therapy, acute OM can progress to chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) characterized by ear drum perforation and purulent discharge. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the most common pathogen associated with CSOM. Although, macrophages play an important role in innate immune responses but their role in the pathogenesis of P. aeruginosa-induced CSOM is not known. The objective of this study is to examine the interaction of P. aeruginosa with primary macrophages. We observed that P. aeruginosa enters and multiplies inside human and mouse primary macrophages. This bacterial entry in macrophages requires both microtubule and actin dependent processes. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that P. aeruginosa was present in membrane bound vesicles inside macrophages. Interestingly, deletion of oprF expression in P. aeruginosa abrogates its ability to survive inside macrophages. Our results suggest that otopathogenic P. aeruginosa entry and survival inside macrophages is OprF-dependent. The survival of bacteria inside macrophages will lead to evasion of killing and this lack of pathogen clearance by phagocytes contributes to the persistence of infection in CSOM. Understanding host-pathogen interaction will provide novel avenues to design effective treatment modalities against OM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahul Mittal
- Department of Otolaryngology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami FL, USA
| | - Christopher V Lisi
- Department of Otolaryngology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami FL, USA
| | - Hansi Kumari
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami FL, USA
| | - M'hamed Grati
- Department of Otolaryngology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami FL, USA
| | - Patricia Blackwelder
- Chemistry Department, Center for Advanced Microscopy, University of Miami, Coral GablesFL, USA; Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, University of Miami, Key BiscayneFL, USA
| | - Denise Yan
- Department of Otolaryngology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami FL, USA
| | - Chaitanya Jain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami FL, USA
| | - Kalai Mathee
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, MiamiFL, USA; Global Health Consortium and Biomolecular Science Institute, Florida International University, MiamiFL, USA
| | - Paulo H Weckwerth
- Health Sciences Department, University of Sagrado Coração Bauru, Brazil
| | - Xue Z Liu
- Department of Otolaryngology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami FL, USA
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14
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Altered Expressions of miR-1238-3p, miR-494, miR-6069, and miR-139-3p in the Formation of Chronic Brucellosis. J Immunol Res 2016; 2016:4591468. [PMID: 27722176 PMCID: PMC5046029 DOI: 10.1155/2016/4591468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2016] [Revised: 07/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucellosis is a zoonotic disease that is still endemic in developing countries. Despite early diagnosis and treatment of patients, chronic infections are seen in 10–30% of patients. In this study, we aimed to investigate the immunological factors that play roles in the transition of brucellosis from acute infection into chronic infection. Here, more than 2000 miRNAs were screened in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of patients with acute or chronic brucellosis and healthy controls by using miRNA array, and the results of the miRNA array were validated through qRT-PCR. Findings were evaluated using GeneSpring GX (Agilent) 13.0 software and KEGG pathway analysis. Four miRNAs were expressed in the chronic group but were not expressed in acute and control groups. Among these miRNAs, the expression level of miR-1238-3p was increased while miR-494, miR-6069, and miR-139-3p were decreased (p < 0.05, fold change > 2). These miRNAs have the potential to be markers for chronic cases. The differentially expressed miRNAs and their predicted target genes involved in endocytosis, regulation of actin cytoskeleton, MAPK signaling pathway, and cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction and its chemokine signaling pathway indicate their potential roles in chronic brucellosis and its progression. It is the first study of miRNA expression analysis of human PBMC to clarify the mechanism of inveteracy in brucellosis.
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15
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Liu N, Wang L, Sun C, Yang L, Sun W, Peng Q. MicroRNA-125b-5p suppresses Brucella abortus intracellular survival via control of A20 expression. BMC Microbiol 2016; 16:171. [PMID: 27473222 PMCID: PMC4966734 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-016-0788-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Brucella may establish chronic infection by regulating the expression of miRNAs. However, the role of miRNAs in modulating the intracellular growth of Brucella remains unclear. Results In this study, we show that Brucella. abortus infection leads to downregulation of miR-125b-5p in macrophages. We establish that miR-125b-5p targets A20, an inhibitor of the NF-kB activation. Additionally, expression of miR-125b-5p decreases A20 expression in B. abortus-infected macrophages and leads to NF-kB activation and increased production of TNFα. Furthermore, B. abortus survival is attenuated in the presence of miR-125b-5p. Conclusions These results uncover a role for miR-125b-5p in the regulation of B. abortus intracellular survival via the control of A20 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Liu
- Central Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130041, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Changjiang Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Li Yang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Wanchun Sun
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Qisheng Peng
- Central Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130041, China. .,Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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16
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Liu N, Sun C, Cui G, Wei P, Yang L, Sun W, Wang S, Wang L, Peng Q. The Rab1 in host cells modulates Brucella intracellular survival and binds to Brucella DnaK protein. Arch Microbiol 2016; 198:923-31. [PMID: 27286866 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-016-1246-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 01/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The intracellular pathogen Brucella abortus (B. abortus) survives and replicates inside host cells within the Brucella-containing vacuole, in which membrane contains a small GTPase Rab1. Here, we reported that Rab1 mediates B. abortus intracellular growth. Furthermore, B. abortus DnaK was identified to interact with Rab1 using GST pull-down and mass spectrometry analysis. This interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence. Through DnaK-CyaA fusion protein translocation assay and immunofluorescence confocal microscopy, the B. abortus DnaK was proved to be a virB-dependent translocated substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Liu
- Central Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, 130041, China
| | - Changjiang Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Guimei Cui
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Pan Wei
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Li Yang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Wanchun Sun
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Shuangxi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular Remodeling and Function Research, Chinese Ministry of Education and Chinese Ministry of Health, Shandong University, Qilu Hospital, Jinan City, 250012, Shandong, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
| | - Qisheng Peng
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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17
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Ahmed W, Zheng K, Liu ZF. Establishment of Chronic Infection: Brucella's Stealth Strategy. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2016; 6:30. [PMID: 27014640 PMCID: PMC4791395 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Brucella is a facultative intracellular pathogen that causes zoonotic infection known as brucellosis which results in abortion and infertility in natural host. Humans, especially in low income countries, can acquire infection by direct contact with infected animal or by consumption of animal products and show high morbidity, severe economic losses and public health problems. However for survival, host cells develop complex immune mechanisms to defeat and battle against attacking pathogens and maintain a balance between host resistance and Brucella virulence. On the other hand as a successful intracellular pathogen, Brucella has evolved multiple strategies to evade immune response mechanisms to establish persistent infection and replication within host. In this review, we mainly summarize the "Stealth" strategies employed by Brucella to modulate innate and the adaptive immune systems, autophagy, apoptosis and possible role of small noncoding RNA in the establishment of chronic infection. The purpose of this review is to give an overview for recent understanding how this pathogen evades immune response mechanisms of host, which will facilitate to understanding the pathogenesis of brucellosis and the development of novel, more effective therapeutic approaches to treat brucellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waqas Ahmed
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University Wuhan, China
| | - Ke Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University Wuhan, China
| | - Zheng-Fei Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University Wuhan, China
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18
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Inositol-Requiring Enzyme 1-Dependent Activation of AMPK Promotes Brucella abortus Intracellular Growth. J Bacteriol 2016; 198:986-93. [PMID: 26755628 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00868-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a serine/threonine kinase that is well conserved during evolution. AMPK activation inhibits production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells via suppression of NADPH oxidase. However, the role of AMPK during the process of Brucella infection remains unknown. Our data demonstrate that B. abortus infection induces AMPK activation in HeLa cells in a time-dependent manner. The known AMPK kinases LKB1, CAMKKβ, and TAK1 are not required for the activation of AMPK by B. abortus infection. Instead, this activation is dependent on the RNase activity of inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1). Moreover, we also found that B. abortus infection-induced IRE1-dependent activation of AMPK promotes B. abortus intracellular growth with peritoneal macrophages via suppression of NADPH-derived ROS production. IMPORTANCE Previous studies showed that B. abortus infection does not promote any oxidative burst regulated by NADPH oxidase. However, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. We report for the first time that AMPK activation caused by B. abortus infection plays important role in NADPH oxidase-derived ROS production.
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19
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TRAF6-mediated degradation of DOK3 is required for production of IL-6 and TNFα in TLR9 signaling. Mol Immunol 2015; 68:699-705. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2015.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 10/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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20
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Liu N, Wang L, Sun C, Yang L, Tang B, Sun W, Peng Q. Macrophage activation induced by Brucella DNA suppresses bacterial intracellular replication via enhancing NO production. Microb Pathog 2015; 89:177-83. [PMID: 26523973 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2015.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 09/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/11/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Brucella DNA can be sensed by TLR9 on endosomal membrane and by cytosolic AIM2-inflammasome to induce proinflammatory cytokine production that contributes to partially activate innate immunity. Additionally, Brucella DNA has been identified to be able to act as a major bacterial component to induce type I IFN. However, the role of Brucella DNA in Brucella intracellular growth remains unknown. Here, we showed that stimulation with Brucella DNA promote macrophage activation in TLR9-dependent manner. Activated macrophages can suppresses wild type Brucella intracellular replication at early stage of infection via enhancing NO production. We also reported that activated macrophage promotes bactericidal function of macrophages infected with VirB-deficient Brucella at the early or late stage of infection. This study uncovers a novel function of Brucella DNA, which can help us further elucidate the mechanism of Brucella intracellular survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ning Liu
- Central Laboratory, The Second Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun 130041, China
| | - Lin Wang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Changjiang Sun
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Li Yang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Bin Tang
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Wanchun Sun
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China
| | - Qisheng Peng
- Key Laboratory for Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, Institute of Zoonosis, Jilin University, Changchun, 130062, China.
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21
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Boase NA, Kumar S. NEDD4: The founding member of a family of ubiquitin-protein ligases. Gene 2014; 557:113-22. [PMID: 25527121 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2014] [Revised: 12/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Ubiquitination plays a crucial role in regulating proteins post-translationally. The focus of this review is on NEDD4, the founding member of the NEDD4 family of ubiquitin ligases that is evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes. Many potential substrates of NEDD4 have been identified and NEDD4 has been shown to play a critical role in the regulation of a number of membrane receptors, endocytic machinery components and the tumour suppressor PTEN. In this review we will discuss the diverse pathways in which NEDD4 is involved, and the patho-physiological significance of this important ubiquitin ligase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Anne Boase
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia
| | - Sharad Kumar
- Centre for Cancer Biology, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia.
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