Rescue of Senecavirus A to uncover mutation profiles of its progenies during 80 serial passages in vitro

Genomic profile of eGFP-tagged senecavirus A subjected to serial plaque-to-plaque transfers

Senecavirus A (SVA) belongs to the genus Senecavirus in the family Picornaviridae. This virus possesses a positive-sense, single-stranded RNA genome, approximately 7200 nt in length, composed of a single 5' untranslated region, encoding region and 3' untranslated region. In this study, a recombinant SVA tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein (eGFP) sequence, rSVA-eGFP, was rescued from its cDNA clone using reverse genetics. The passage-5 (P5) rSVA-eGFP was totally subjected to 55 rounds of consecutive fluorescent plaque-to-fluorescent plaque (FP-FP) transfers, and one extra common passaging in vitro. The P61 viral stock was analyzed by next-generation sequencing. The result showed ten single-nucleotide mutations (SNMs) in the rSVA-eGFP genome, including nine transitions and only one transversion. The P61 progeny still showed a complete eGFP sequence, indicating no occurrence of copy-choice recombination within the eGFP region during serial FP-FP transfers. In other words, this progeny was genetically deficient in the recombination of eGFP sequence (RES), namely, an RES-deficient strain. Out of ten SNMs, three were missense mutations, leading to single-amino acid mutations (SAAMs): F15V in L protein, A74T in VP2, and E53R in 3D protein. The E53R was predicted to be spatially adjacent to the RNA channel of 3D protein, perhaps involved in the emergence of RES-deficient strain. In conclusion, this study uncovered a global landscape of rSVA-eGFP genome after serial FP-FP transfers, and moreover shed light on a putative SAAM possibly related to the RES-deficient mechanism.

Development and evaluation of inactivated vaccines incorporating a novel Senecavirus A strain-based Immunogen and various adjuvants in mice

Porcine idiopathic vesicular disease (PIVD), one of several clinically indistinguishable vesicular diseases of pigs, is caused by the emerging pathogen Senecavirus A (SVA). Despite the widespread prevalence of porcine SVA infection, no effective commercial vaccines for PIVD prevention and control are available, due to high costs associated with vaccine testing in pigs, considerable SVA diversity, and SVA rapid evolution. In this study, SVA CH/JL/2022 (OP562896), a novel mutant SVA strain derived from an isolate obtained from a pig farm in Jilin Province, China, was inactivated then combined with four adjuvants, MONTANIDETM GEL02 PR (GEL 02), MONTANIDETM ISA 201 VG (ISA 201), MONTANIDETM IMG 1313 VG N (IMS1313), or Rehydragel LV (LV). The resulting inactivated SVA CH/JL/2022 vaccines were assessed for efficacy in mice and found to induce robust in vivo lymphocyte proliferation responses and strong IgG1, IgG2a, and neutralizing antibody responses with IgG2a/IgG1 ratios of <1. Furthermore, all vaccinated groups exhibited significantly higher levels of serum cytokines IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, and IFN as compared to unvaccinated mice. These results indicate that all vaccines elicited both Th1 and Th2 responses, with Th2 responses predominating. Moreover, vaccinated mice exhibited enhanced resistance to SVA infection, as evidenced by reduced viral RNA levels and SVA infection-induced histopathological changes. Collectively, our results demonstrate that the SVA-GEL vaccine induced more robust immunological responses in mice than did the other three vaccines, thus highlighting the potential of SVA-GEL to serve an effective tool for preventing and controlling SVA infection.

Isolation and characterization of a G9P[23] porcine rotavirus strain AHFY2022 in China

Rotavirus group A (RVA) is a main pathogen causing diarrheal diseases in humans and animals. Various genotypes are prevalent in the Chinese pig herd. The genetic diversity of RVA lead to distinctly characteristics. In the present study, a porcine RVA strain, named AHFY2022, was successfully isolated from the small intestine tissue of piglets with severe diarrhea. The AHFY2022 strain was identified by cytopathic effects (CPE) observation, indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA), electron microscopy (EM), high-throughput sequencing, and pathogenesis to piglets. The genomic investigation using NGS data revealed that AHFY2022 exhibited the genotypes G9-P[23]-I5-R1-C1-M1-A8-N1-T1-E1-H1, using the online platform the Bacterial and Viral Bioinformatics Resource Center (BV-BRC) (https://www.bv-brc.org/). Moreover, experimental inoculation in 5-day-old and 27-day-old piglets demonstrated that AHFY2022 caused severe diarrhea, fecal shedding, small intestinal villi damage, and colonization in all challenged piglets. Taken together, our results detailed the virological features of the porcine rotavirus G9P[23] from China, including the whole-genome sequences, genotypes, growth kinetics in MA104 cells and the pathogenicity in suckling piglets.

AAACH is a conserved motif in a cis-acting replication element that is artificially inserted into Senecavirus A genome

Cis-acting replication element (cre) is required for generating a diuridylylated VPg that acts as a protein primer to initiate the synthesis of picornaviral genome or antigenome. The cre is a stem-loop structure, dependent of different picornaviruses, located in different genomic regions. The AAACA motif is highly conserved in the apical loop of cre among several picornaviral members, and plays a key role in synthesizing a diuridylylated VPg. We previously demonstrated that senecavirus A (SVA) also possesses an AAACA-containing cre in its genome. Its natural cre (Nc), if functionally inactivated through site-directed mutagenesis (SDM), would confer a lethal impact on virus recovery, whereas an artificial cre (Ac) is able to compensate for the Nc-caused functional inactivation, leading to successful rescue of a viable SVA. In this study, we constructed a set of SVA cDNA clones. Each of them contained one functionally inactivated Nc, and an extra SDM-modified Ac. Every cDNA clone had a unique SDM-modified Ac. The test of virus recovery showed that only two SVAs were rescued from their individual cDNA clones. They were AAACU- and AAACC-containing Ac genotypes. Both viruses were serially passaged in vitro for analyzing their viral characteristics. The results showed that both AAACU and AAACC genotypes were genetically stable during twenty passages, implying when the Nc was functionally inactivated, SVA could still use an AAACH-containing Ac to complete its own replication cycle.

Cells at early and late stages of infection with Senecavirus A: Comparative analysis of N6-methyladenosine modification on mRNAs

Infection with Senecavirus A (SVA) causes differential phenotypes in cells. In this study, cells were inoculated with SVA for culture. At 12 and 72 h post infection, cells were independently harvested for high-throughput RNA sequencing, and further methylated RNA immunoprecipitation sequencing. The resultant data were comprehensively analyzed for mapping N⁶-methyladenosine (m⁶A)-modified profiles of SVA-infected cells. More importantly, m⁶A-modified regions were identified in the SVA genome. A dataset of m⁶A-modified mRNAs was generated for screening out differentially m⁶A-modified mRNAs, further subjected to a series of in-depth analyses. This study not only showed statistical differentiation of m⁶A-modified sites between two SVA-infected groups, but also demonstrated that SVA genome, as a positive-sense, single-stranded mRNA, itself could be modified through the m⁶A pattern. Out of the six samples of SVA mRNAs, only three were identified to be m⁶A-modified, implying that the epigenetic effect might not be a crucial driving force for SVA evolution.

Directed Evolution of Seneca Valley Virus in Tumorsphere and Monolayer Cell Cultures of a Small-Cell Lung Cancer Model

The Seneca Valley virus (SVV) is an oncolytic virus from the picornavirus family, characterized by a 7.3-kilobase RNA genome encoding for all the structural and functional viral proteins. Directed evolution by serial passaging has been employed for oncolytic virus adaptation to increase the killing efficacy towards certain types of tumors. We propagated the SVV in a small-cell lung cancer model under two culture conditions: conventional cell monolayer and tumorspheres, with the latter resembling more closely the cellular structure of the tumor of origin. We observed an increase of the virus-killing efficacy after ten passages in the tumorspheres. Deep sequencing analyses showed genomic changes in two SVV populations comprising 150 single nucleotides variants and 72 amino acid substitutions. Major differences observed in the tumorsphere-passaged virus population, compared to the cell monolayer, were identified in the conserved structural protein VP2 and in the highly variable P2 region, suggesting that the increase in the ability of the SVV to kill cells over time in the tumorspheres is acquired by capsid conservation and positively selecting mutations to counter the host innate immune responses.

Genomic profile of eGFP-expressing canine distemper virus that undergoes serial plaque-to-plaque transfers

Canine distemper virus (CDV) is classified into the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. This virus has a single-stranded genomic RNA with negative polarity. The wild-type CDV genome is generally composed of 15 690 nucleotides. We previously rescued an enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP)-tagged recombinant CDV (rCDV-eGFP) using reverse genetics. In this study, the rCDV-eGFP at passage-7 was subjected to 38 serial plaque-to-plaque transfers (or bottleneck passages) and two extra common passages in cells. In theory, the effect of Muller’s ratchet may fix deleterious mutations in a single viral population after consecutive plaque-to-plaque transfers. In order to uncover a mutated landscape of the rCDV-eGFP under the circumstances of bottleneck passages, the passage-47 progeny was collected for the in-depth analysis via next-generation sequencing. The result revealed a total of nine single-nucleotide mutations (SNMs) in the viral antigenome. Out of them, SNMs at nt 1832, 5022, 5536, 5580, 5746, 6913 and 8803 were identified as total single-nucleotide substitution, i.e., 100% of mutation frequency. The result suggested no notable formation of viral quasispecies in the rCDV-eGFP population after consecutive plaque-to-plaque transfers.

The 5′-end motif of Senecavirus A cDNA clone is genetically modified in 36 different ways for uncovering profiles of virus recovery

Senecavirus A (SVA) is an emerging picornavirus. Its genome is one positive-sense, single-stranded RNA. The viral protein (VPg) is covalently linked to the extreme 5′ end of the SVA genome. A complex hairpin-pseudoknot-hairpin (HPH) RNA structure was computationally predicted to form at the 5′ end of the SVA genome. A total of three extra “U” residues (UUU) served as a linker between the HPH structure and the VPg, causing putative UUU–HPH formation at the extreme 5′ end of the SVA genome. It is unclear how the UUU–HPH structure functions. One SVA cDNA clone (N0) was constructed previously in our laboratory. Here, the N0 was genetically tailored for reconstructing a set of 36 modified cDNA clones (N1 to N36) in an attempt to rescue replication-competent SVAs using reverse genetics. The results showed that a total of nine viruses were successfully recovered. Out of them, five were independently rescued from the N1 to N5, reconstructed by deleting the first five nucleotides (TTTGA) one by one from the extreme 5′ end of N0. Interestingly, these five viral progenies reverted to the wild-type or/and wild-type-like genotype, suggesting that SVA with an ability to repair nucleotide defects in its extreme 5′ end. The other four were independently rescued from the N26 to N29, containing different loop-modifying motifs in the first hairpin of the HPH structure. These four loop-modifying motifs were genetically stable after serial passages, implying the wild-type loop motif was not a high-fidelity element in the first hairpin during SVA replication. The other genetically modified sequences were demonstrated to be lethal elements in the HPH structure for SVA recovery, suggesting that the putative HPH formation was a crucial cis-acting replication element for SVA propagation.

Tolerance of Senecavirus A to Mutations in Its Kissing-Loop or Pseudoknot Structure Computationally Predicted in 3′ Untranslated Region

Senecavirus A (SVA) is an emerging virus that belongs to the genus Senecavirus in the family Picornaviridae. Its genome is a positive-sense and single-stranded RNA, containing two untranslated regions (UTRs). The 68-nt-long 3′ UTR is computationally predicted to possess two higher-order RNA structures: a kissing-loop interaction and an H-type-like pseudoknot, both of which, however, cannot coexist in the 3′ UTR. In this study, we constructed 17 full-length SVA cDNA clones (cD-1 to -17): the cD-1 to -7 contained different point mutations in a kissing-loop-forming motif (KLFM); the cD-8 to -17 harbored one single or multiple point mutations in a pseudoknot-forming motif (PFM). These 17 mutated cDNA clones were independently transfected into BSR-T7/5 cells for rescuing recombinant SVAs (rSVAs), named rSVA-1 to −17, corresponding to cD-1 to −17. The results showed that the rSVA-1, -2, -3, -4, -5, -6, -7, -9, -13, and -15 were successfully rescued from their individual cDNA clones. Moreover, all mutated motifs were genetically stable during 10 viral passages in vitro. This study unveiled viral abilities of tolerating mutations in the computationally predicted KLFM or PFMs. It can be concluded that the putative kissing-loop structure, even if present in the 3′ UTR, is unnecessary for SVA replication. Alternatively, if the pseudoknot formation potentially occurs in the 3′ UTR, its deformation would have a lethal effect on SVA propagation.

Recovery of Two Replication-Competent Canine Distemper Viruses That Separately Express Dabie Bandavirus Gn and Gc

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) is an emerging tick-borne zoonosis with a high mortality rate in humans. Additionally, dogs are frequently reported to be infected with this disease. There has been no commercially available vaccine for humans and animals as yet. The SFTS is caused by Dabie bandavirus (DBV), formerly known as SFTS virus. The DBV is now classified into the genus Bandavirus in the family Phenuiviridae. DBV Gn and Gc can induce specific immune responses in vivo. In this study, we used reverse genetics technique to construct two recombinant canine distemper viruses (rCDVs), rCDV-Gn and -Gc, which could express Gn and Gc in vitro, respectively. Both of the recombinants, derived from a common parental CDV, were independently subjected to twenty serial passages in cells for Sanger sequencing. Neither point mutation nor fragment deletion was found in the Gn open reading frame (ORF), whereas the rCDV-Gc showed a nonsynonymous mutation (A157C) in the Gc ORF, correspondingly resulting in a mutation of amino acid (T53P) in the Gc. Growth curve of the rCDV-Gc almost coincided with that of a wild-type CDV, but exhibited a significant difference from that of the rCDV-Gn. Much research remains to be performed to demonstrate whether both recombinants are able of inducing specific immune responses in vivo.

Senecavirus A- and Non-Infected Cells at Early Stage of Infection: Comparative Metabolomic Profiles

Senecavirus A (SVA), classified into the genus Senecavirus in the family Picornaviridae, causes an infectious disease in pigs. This virus can efficiently replicate in some non-pig-derived cells, such as the BHK cell line and its derivative (BSR-T7/5 cell line). We had recovered a wild-type SVA from its cDNA clone previously, and then uncovered the proteomic profile of SVA-infected BSR-T7/5 cells at 12 h post inoculation (hpi). In order to explore the cellular metabolomics further, the SVA-inoculated BSR-T7/5 cell monolayer was collected at 12 hpi for assay via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The resultant data set was comprehensively analyzed using bioinformatics tools. A total of 451 metabolites were identified using in-house and public databases. Out of these metabolites, sixty-one showed significantly differential values (p value < 0.05). The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database was used to analyze metabolic pathways of the significantly differential metabolites. There were eighty-one identified KEGG pathways, out of which twenty-seven showed their p values < 0.05. The pyrimidine metabolism revealed the minimum p value and the maximum number of significantly differential metabolites, implying the pyrimidine played a key role in cellular metabolism after SVA infection. SVA replication must rely on the cellular metabolism. The present study on metabolomics would shed light on impacts of SVA-induced multiple interactions among metabolites on cells or even on natural hosts.

Recovery of Recombinant Canine Distemper Virus That Expresses CPV-2a VP2: Uncovering the Mutation Profile of Recombinant Undergoing 50 Serial Passages In Vitro

Canine distemper and canine parvoviral enteritis are infections caused by the canine distemper virus (CDV) and canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2), respectively. They are two common infectious diseases that cause high morbidity and mortality in affected dogs. Combination vaccines have been broadly used to protect dogs from infections of CDV, CPV-2, and other viruses. VP2 is the most abundant protein of the CPV-2 capsid. It elicits potent immunity in animals and, therefore, is widely used for designing subunit antigen-based vaccines. In this study, we rescued a recombinant CDV (QN vaccine strain) using reverse genetics. The recombinant CDV (rCDV-VP2) was demonstrated to express stably the VP2 in cells for at least 33 serial passages in vitro. Unfortunately, a nonsense mutation was initially identified in the VP2 open reading frame (ORF) at passage-34 (P34) and gradually became predominant in rCDV-VP2 quasispecies with passaging. Neither test strip detection nor indirect immunofluorescence assay demonstrated the expression of the VP2 at P50. The P50 rCDV-VP2 was subjected to next-generation sequencing, which totally identified 17 single-nucleotide variations (SNVs), consisting of 11 transitions and 6 transversions. Out of the 17 SNVs, 1 and 9 were identified as nonsense and missense mutations, respectively. Since the nonsense mutation arose in the VP2 ORF as early as P34, an earlier rCDV-VP2 progeny should be selected for the vaccination of animals in future experiments.

Novel putative pathogenic viruses identified in pangolins by mining metagenomic data

The pangolin is the only scaly mammal in the world and also an important reservoir of pathogenic viruses. Habitat loss and poaching have been shrinking the survival range of pangolins. More information on pangolin virus populations is needed to better understand and assess potential disease risks. In this study, viral metagenomic data were used to reinvestigate the virome in pangolin lung tissue. Complete genome sequences of two novel anelloviruses were acquired and clustered with the referenced feline strains belonging to genus Tettorquevirus and genus Etatorquevirus, respectively. Two genomes belonging to the genus Gemykibivirus, and species Bat-associated cyclovirus 9 were detected, respectively. One genome with a large contig belonging to the genus Senecavirus were also characterized, according to phylogenetic analysis, which can be presumed to be a novel species. In addition, a full genome of endogenous retroviruse (ERV) was assembled from the lungs of pangolin, and this virus may have the possibility of cross-species transmission during the evolution. This virological investigation has increased our understanding of the virome carried by pangolins and provided a reference baseline for possible zoonotic infectious diseases in the future.

Rescuing eGFP-Tagged Canine Distemper Virus for 40 Serial Passages Separately in Ribavirin- and Non-Treated Cells: Comparative Analysis of Viral Mutation Profiles

Due to lacking a proofreading mechanism in their RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRp), RNA viruses generally possess high mutation frequencies, making them evolve rapidly to form viral quasispecies during serial passages in cells, especially treated with mutagens, like ribavirin. Canine distemper virus (CDV) belongs to the genus Morbillivirus. Its L protein functions as an RdRp during viral replication. In this study, a recombinant enhanced green fluorescence protein-tagged CDV (rCDV-eGFP) was rescued from its cDNA clone, followed by viral identification and characterization at passage-7 (P7). This recombinant was independently subjected to extra 40 serial passages (P8 to 47) in ribavirin- and non-treated cells. Two viral progenies, undergoing passages in ribavirin- and non-treated VDS cells, were named rCDV-eGFP-R and -N, respectively. Both progenies were simultaneously subjected to next-generation sequencing (NGS) at P47 for comparing their quasispecies diversities with each other. The rCDV-eGFP-R and -N showed 62 and 23 single-nucleotide mutations (SNMs) in individual antigenomes, respectively, suggesting that the ribavirin conferred a mutagenic effect on the rCDV-eGFP-R. The spectrum of 62 SNMs contained 26 missense and 36 silent mutations, and that of 23 SNMs was composed of 17 missense and 6 silent mutations. Neither the rCDV-eGFP-R nor -N exhibited nonsense mutation in individual antigenomes. We speculate that the rCDV-eGFP-R may contain at least one P47 sub-progeny characterized by high-fidelity replication in cells. If such a sub-progeny can be purified from the mutant swarm, its L protein would elucidate a molecular mechanism of CDV high-fidelity replication.

Impacts of single nucleotide deletions from the 3' end of Senecavirus A 5' untranslated region on activity of viral IRES and on rescue of recombinant virus

The 5' untranslated region (UTR) of Senecavirus A (SVA) harbors an internal ribosome entry site (IRES), in which a pseudoknot structure is upstream of start codon AUG. Wild-type SVAs have a highly conserved 13-nt-sequence between the pseudoknot stem II (PKS-II)-forming motif and the AUG. In this study, a single nucleotide was deleted one by one from the 13-nt-sequence within a wild-type SVA minigenome. The result showed that neither mono- nor multi-nucleotide deletions abolished the IRES activity. Furthermore, a single nucleotide was deleted one by one from the 13-nt-sequence within a full-length SVA cDNA clone. The result indicated that nucleotide-deleting SVAs could be rescued from 1- to 5-nt-deleting cDNA clones, whereas only the 1- and 2-nt-deleting viruses were genetically stable during nine serial passages in vitro. Additionally, only the 1-nt-deleting SVA showed similar growth kinetics to that of the wild-type virus, suggesting that the pseudoknot-AUG distance was crucial for SVA replication.

Motif mutations in pseudoknot stem I upstream of start codon in Senecavirus A genome: Impacts on activity of viral IRES and on rescue of recombinant virus

Senecavirus A (SVA), formerly known as Seneca Valley virus, is classified into the genus Senecavirus in the family Picornaviridae. Mature virion harbors an approximately 7 300-nt-long, positive-sense, and single-stranded RNA genome, which contains 5' and 3' untranslated regions (UTRs). Internal ribosome entry site (IRES) is identified in the SVA 5' UTR, and includes a RNA pseudoknot upstream of the start codon. This pseudoknot contains two stem structures, pseudoknot stem I and II (PKS-I and -II). The PKS-I is composed of two base-paired motifs (PKS-Ia and -Ib), between which there is an unpaired spacing (UpS). We reported previously that motif mutation in the PKS-II did not abolish the IRES activity, but interfered with SVA recovery from cDNA clone. In this study, we constructed five SVA minigenomes with point mutations in the PKS-I motif. Dual-luciferase reporter assay showed that motif mutations in PKS-I did not significantly interfere with the IRES activity to initiate protein expression. Correspondingly, we constructed five SVA cDNA clones with point mutations in the PKS-I motif. These genetically modified cDNA clones were separately transfected into BSR-T7/5 cells in attempting to rescue competent SVAs. However, only two viruses, namely PKS-Ia- and UpS-mutated recombinants, could be recovered from their individual cDNA clones. It can be concluded that the PKS-Ib is indispensable for viral growth.

Rescue of recombinant canine distemper virus that expresses S1 subunit of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in vitro

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), as an unprecedented pandemic, has rapidly spread around the globe. Its etiological agent, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), belongs to the genus Betacoronavirus in the family Coronaviridae. The viral S1 subunit has been demonstrated to have a powerful potential in inducing protective immune responses in vivo. Since April 2020, farmed minks were frequently reported to be infected with the SARS-CoV-2 in different countries. Unfortunately, there has been no available veterinary vaccine as yet. In this study, we used reverse genetics to rescue a recombinant canine distemper virus (CDV) that could express the SARS-CoV-2 S1 subunit in vitro. The S1 subunit sequence was demonstrated to be relatively stable in the genome of recombinant CDV during twenty serial viral passages in cells. However, due to introduction of the S1 subunit sequence into CDV genome, this recombinant CDV grew more slowly than the wild-type strain did. The genomic backbone of recombinant CDV was derived from a virulence-attenuating strain (QN strain). Therefore, if able to induce immune protections in minks from canine distemper and COVID-19 infections, this recombinant would be a potential vaccine candidate for veterinary use.

Mutation Profiles of eGFP-Tagged Small Ruminant Morbillivirus During 45 Serial Passages in Ribavirin-Treated Cells

Small ruminant morbillivirus (SRMV), formerly known as peste-des-petits-ruminants virus, classified into the genus Morbillivirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. Its L protein functions as the RNA-dependent RNA polymerases (RdRp) during viral replication. Due to the absence of efficient proofreading activity in their RdRps, various RNA viruses reveal high mutation frequencies, making them evolve rapidly during serial passages in cells, especially treated with a certain mutagen, like ribavirin. We have previously rescued a recombinant enhanced green fluorescence protein-tagged SRMV (rSRMV-eGFP) using reverse genetics. In this study, the rSRMV-eGFP was subjected to serial passages in ribavirin-treated cells. Due to the ribavirin-exerted selective pressure, it was speculated that viral progenies would form quasispecies after dozens of passages. Viral progenies at passage-10, -20, -30, -40, and -50 were separately subjected to next-generation sequencing (NGS), consequently revealing a total of 34 single-nucleotide variations, including five synonymous, 21 missense, and one non-sense mutations. The L sequence was found to harbor eight missense mutations during serial passaging. It was speculated that at least one high-fidelity variant was present in viral quasispecies at passage-50. If purified from the population of viral progenies, this putative variant would contribute to clarifying a molecular mechanism in viral high-fidelity replication in vitro.

Rescue of dual reporter-tagged parainfluenza virus 5 as tool for rapid screening of antivirals in vitro

Parainfluenza virus 5 (PIV5) belongs to the genus Orthorubulavirus in the family Paramyxoviridae. PIV5 can infect a range of mammals, but induce mild or even unobservable clinical signs in some animals, except kennel cough in dogs. It is also able to infect a variety of cell lines, but causes minimal or even invisible cytopathic effects on many cells. Sometimes, owing to neither observable cytopathic effects in vitro nor typical clinical signs in vivo, the PIV5 is not easily usable for screening antiviral drugs. To solve this issue, we used reverse genetics to recover a dual reporter-tagged recombinant PIV5 that could simultaneously express enhanced green fluorescence protein (eGFP) and NanoLuc® luciferase (NLuc) in virus-infected cells. Both reporters were genetically stable during twenty serial passages of virus in MDBK cells. The eGFP allowed us to observe virus-infected MDBK cells in real time, and moreover the NLuc made it possible to quantify the degree of viral replication for determining antiviral activity of a given drug. Subsequently, the recombinant PIV5 was used for antiviral assays on five common drugs, i.e., ribavirin, apigenin, 1-adamantylamine hydrochloride, moroxydine hydrochloride and tea polyphenol. The results showed that only the ribavirin had an anti-PIV5 effect in MDBK cells. This study proposed a novel method for rapid screening (or prescreening) of anti-PIV5 drugs.

Comparative Proteomic Profiling: Cellular Metabolisms Are Mainly Affected in Senecavirus A-Inoculated Cells at an Early Stage of Infection

Senecavirus A (SVA), also known as Seneca Valley virus, belongs to the genus Senecavirus in the family Picornaviridae. SVA can cause vesicular disease and epidemic transient neonatal losses in pigs. This virus efficiently propagates in some non-pig-derived cells, like the baby hamster kidney (BHK) cell line and its derivate (BSR-T7/5). Conventionally, a few proteins or only one protein is selected for exploiting a given mechanism concerning cellular regulation after SVA infection in vitro. Proteomics plays a vital role in the analysis of protein profiling, protein-protein interactions, and protein-directed metabolisms, among others. Tandem mass tag-labeled liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry combined with the parallel reaction monitoring technique is increasingly used for proteomic research. In this study, this combined method was used to uncover separately proteomic profiles of SVA- and non-infected BSR-T7/5 cells. Furthermore, both proteomic profiles were compared with each other. The proteomic profiling showed that a total of 361 differentially expressed proteins were identified, out of which, 305 and 56 were upregulated and downregulated in SVA-infected cells at 12 h post-inoculation, respectively. GO (Gene Ontology) and KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes) enrichment analyses showed that cellular metabolisms were affected mainly in SVA-inoculated cells at an early stage of infection. Therefore, an integrated metabolic atlas remains to be explored via metabolomic methods.

Stem II-disrupting pseudoknot does not abolish ability of Senecavirus A IRES to initiate protein expression, but inhibits recovery of virus from cDNA clone

Senecavirus A (SVA) is classified into the genus Senecavirus in the family Picornaviridae. Its genome is a positive-sense, single-stranded and nonsegmented RNA, approximately 7300 nucleotides in length. A picornaviral genome is essentially an mRNA, which, albeit unmodified with 5' cap structure, can still initiate protein expression by the internal ribosome entry site (IRES). The SVA genome contains a hepatitis C virus-like IRES, in which a pseudoknot structure plays an important role in initiating protein expression. In this study, we constructed a set of SVA (CH-LX-01-2016 strain) minigenomes with all combinations of point mutations in its pseudoknot stem II (PKS-II). The results showed that any combination of point mutations could not significantly interfere with the IRES to initiate protein expression. Further, we constructed a full-length SVA cDNA clone, in which the PKS-II-forming cDNA motif was subjected to site-directed mutagenesis for totally disrupting the PKS-II formation in IRES. Such a modified SVA cDNA clone was transfected into BSR-T7/5 cells, consequently demonstrating that the PKS-II-disrupting IRES interfered neither with protein expression nor with antigenome replication, whereas a competent SVA could not be rescued from the cDNA clone. It was speculated that the mutated motif possibly disrupted a packaging signal for virion assembly, therefore causing the failure of SVA rescue.