First description of Cryptosporidium bovis in Japan and diagnosis and genotyping of Cryptosporidium spp. in diarrheic pre-weaned calves in Hokkaido

Comprehensive molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium species in Japan

Cryptosporidium species, causing diarrheal illnesses in humans and animals worldwide, are under investigation for their molecular epidemiology in Japan. The study focuses on detecting Cryptosporidium species in humans, animals, water, and the environment, revealing three species in people: C. parvum, C. meleagridis, and C. hominis. Subtype IIa of the C. parvum gp60 gene is prevalent, indicating potential zoonotic transmission. Animal studies identified sixteen species, mainly cattle and pets, with C. parvum (subtype IIa) common in cattle and C. canis and C. felis prevalent in pets. Additionally, C. bovis and C. ryanae were found in cattle and sika deer. Knowledge gaps exist, particularly in water and environmental source typing, with limited research revealing five species and five genotypes, suggesting a significant role of water in transmission. Further research is needed to understand the molecular diversity and transmission dynamics across humans, animals, water, and the environment in Japan.

Prevalence and potential risk factors for Cryptosporidium spp. infection in horses from Egypt

Cryptosporidium is an intestinal protozoan that cause diarrhea in livestock all over the world and have zoonotic importance. The present study aimed to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in horses in Egypt and evaluate the associated risk factors. A total of 420 fecal samples were collected from three governorates (Giza, Kafr ElSheikh and Qalyubia) and examined microscopically using Ziehl-Neelsen staining method. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. was 29% and Kafr ElSheikh governorate had the highest rate in comparison to other areas. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in examined horses had significant association with sex, age, type of management, absence of bedding and presence of dogs. The higher prevalence rate was observed in females (32.2%), age group less than two years (43.2%), mixed (grazing and stable) horses (36.1%), animals had history of diarrhea (33%), absence of bedding (35.1%) and contact with dogs (35.7%). These findings give baseline data for further research. It is necessary to establish control strategy for Cryptosporidium spp. infection in order to lower the risk of infection in animals and human.

Cryptosporidium species and cryptosporidiosis in Japan: a literature review and insights into the role played by animals in its transmission

Cryptosporidium species infect domestic animals, livestock, and humans. These protozoan parasites are frequently reported as major environmental contaminants in many countries despite their differing climatic, socioeconomic, and demographic factors. This review focuses on the research findings that relate to Cryptosporidium epidemiology, genetic diversity, and associated risk factors relating to animals, contaminated water sources, and humans in Japan. Adequate knowledge of these factors is essential for understanding the economic and public health importance of cryptosporidiosis in Japan so that effective control strategies against it are implemented. Cryptosporidium infections are highly prevalent in animals in Japan. Among the different animal species, cattle infections stand out because of their economic importance and zoonotic potential. Living circumstances in Japan restrain Cryptosporidium transmission between humans, but there is evidence to suggest that animals, especially those in close contact with humans, can be potential sources of human infections. Water sampling studies have provided clues about how environmental contamination with Cryptosporidium oocysts can cause infections in livestock and wild animals. There is some evidence of person-to-person transmission of cryptosporidiosis, but only occasionally and under certain circumstances. By identifying the major role played by animals in Cryptosporidium transmission to people in Japan, we highlight the urgent need for disease control against this pathogen.

Distribution of Cryptosporidium species isolated from diarrhoeic calves in Japan

Cryptosporidium spp. are enteric protozoan parasites that infect a wide range of hosts including humans, and domestic and wild animals. The aim of this study was to molecularly characterize the Cryptosporidium spp. found in calf faeces in Japan. A total of 80 pre-weaned beef and dairy calves' diarrhoeic faecal specimens were collected from nine different prefectures in Japan. A nested polymerase chain reaction targeting the small subunit 18S rRNA and GP60 genes were used to detect the Cryptosporidium genotypes and subtypes. 83.8% (67 out of 80) of the specimens were positive for Cryptosporidium spp.; Cryptosporidium was found in both beef and dairy calves. Cryptosporidium parvum was the predominant species, detected in 77.5% (31/40) of beef calves and 80% (32/40) of dairy calves. Cryptosporidium bovis was also detected, 5.0% (2/40) of dairy calves, and C. ryanae was also found 2.5% (1/40) of dairy calves. One mixed-species infection, 2.5% (1/40) was detected in a beef calf having C. parvum, and C. ryanae. We detected the most common subtype of C. parvum (i.e., IIaA15G2R1), as well as other subtypes (i.e., IIaA14G3R1, IIaA14G2R1, and IIaA13G1R1) that have not previously been detected in calves in Japan. Our results demonstrate the widespread diversity of Cryptosporidium infection in calves in Japan.

A single-cohort study of Cryptosporidium bovis and Cryptosporidium ryanae in dairy cattle from birth to calving

In order to investigate the infection dynamics of Cryptosporidium bovis and C. ryanae, a two-year prospective cohort study was performed on a dairy farm known to be free of C. parvum. Sixteen calves were recruited when newborn. Faecal samples were collected weekly until calves were nine weeks old, then monthly until calving or culling. Samples (n = 455) were examined by fluorescence microscopy, and when positive the species were determined by DNA sequencing. In calves up to nine weeks, C. bovis was found in 58.5% of the samples, C. ryanae in 9.2%, and both C. bovis and C. ryanae in 3.1%. The prevalence of shedding calves peaked at 87.5% in week five, which is earlier than many international studies have shown for C. bovis. The cumulative incidence of C. bovis reached 100% when the calves were five weeks old. In four calves, the species detected changed from C. bovis to C. ryanae or the other way around, and two samples were a combination of both species. Several individuals shed oocysts sporadically up to 16 months of age. The highest oocysts per gram faeces count was seen in week three (3.6 × 10⁶ OPG). Diarrhoea was not associated with oocyst shedding.

Prevalence and phylogenetic analysis of Cryptosporidium infections in Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in the Tokachi sub-prefecture of Hokkaido, Japan

The Yezo sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) on the island of Hokkaido, Japan are currently recognized as overabundant. Hunting is used to control the deer population, and this has increased the supply of game meat, which is associated with a high risk of various food-borne infections. Additionally, the sub-prefecture Tokachi has a dense population of livestock, which are potentially at risk of cross-species infections from the deer. In this study, we undertook the first analysis of the incidence of Cryptosporidium infection in the Yezo sika deer in the Tokachi area using polymerase chain reaction testing and phylogenetic analysis. Polymerase chain reaction analysis showed Cryptosporidium species present in 7.5% of fecal samples (13/173) collected from deer hunted between 2016 and 2017. However, the zoonotic Cryptosporidium paruvm parasite was not detected in the phylogenetic analysis; when sequenced, all species in the positive samples matched the Cryptosporidium deer genotype. However, deer may act as a reservoir of the zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum parasite, which affects both humans and livestock. Therefore, we recommend the continuation of surveys of the incidence of Cryptosporidium infections in Yezo sika deer.

Cryptosporidium infections in terrestrial ungulates with focus on livestock: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Cryptosporidium spp. are causative agents of gastrointestinal diseases in a wide variety of vertebrate hosts. Mortality resulting from the disease is low in livestock, although severe cryptosporidiosis has been associated with fatality in young animals.

Methods

The goal of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to review the prevalence and molecular data on Cryptosporidium infections in selected terrestrial domestic and wild ungulates of the families Bovidae (bison, buffalo, cattle, goat, impala, mouflon sheep, sheep, yak), Cervidae (red deer, roe deer, white-tailed deer), Camelidae (alpaca, camel), Suidae (boar, pig), Giraffidae (giraffes) and Equidae (horses). Data collection was carried out using PubMed, Scopus, Science Direct and Cochran databases, with 429 papers being included in this systematic analysis.

Results

The results show that overall 18.9% of ungulates from the investigated species were infected with Cryptosporidium spp. Considering livestock species (cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses and buffaloes), analysis revealed higher Cryptosporidium infection prevalence in ungulates of the Cetartiodactyla than in those of the Perissodactyla, with cattle (29%) being the most commonly infected farm animal.

Conclusions

Overall, the investigated domestic ungulates are considered potential sources of Cryptosporidium contamination in the environment. Control measures should be developed to reduce the occurrence of Cryptosporidium infection in these animals. Furthermore, literature on wild populations of the named ungulate species revealed a widespread presence and potential reservoir function of wildlife.

Novel lactate dehydrogenase inhibitors with in vivo efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum

Cryptosporidium parvum is a highly prevalent zoonotic and anthroponotic protozoan parasite that causes a diarrheal syndrome in children and neonatal livestock, culminating in growth retardation and mortalities. Despite the high prevalence of C. parvum, there are no fully effective and safe drugs for treating infections, and there is no vaccine. We have previously reported that the bacterial-like C. parvum lactate dehydrogenase (CpLDH) enzyme is essential for survival, virulence and growth of C. parvum in vitro and in vivo. In the present study, we screened compound libraries and identified inhibitors against the enzymatic activity of recombinant CpLDH protein in vitro. We tested the inhibitors for anti-Cryptosporidium effect using in vitro infection assays of HCT-8 cells monolayers and identified compounds NSC158011 and NSC10447 that inhibited the proliferation of intracellular C. parvum in vitro, with IC₅₀ values of 14.88 and 72.65 μM, respectively. At doses tolerable in mice, we found that both NSC158011 and NSC10447 consistently significantly reduced the shedding of C. parvum oocysts in infected immunocompromised mice’s feces, and prevented intestinal villous atrophy as well as mucosal erosion due to C. parvum. Together, our findings have unveiled promising anti-Cryptosporidium drug candidates that can be explored further for the development of the much needed novel therapeutic agents against C. parvum infections.

Cryptosporidium parvum is a protozoan parasite that can cause a life-threatening gastrointestinal disease in children and in immunocompromised adults. The only approved drug for treatment of Cryptosporidium infections in humans is nitazoxanide, but it is not effective in immunocompromised individuals or in children with malnutrition. C. parvum possesses a unique lactate dehydrogenase (CpLDH) enzyme that it uses for generating metabolic energy (ATP) via the glycolytic pathway to fuel its growth and proliferation in the host. We have identified novel inhibitors for the enzymatic activity of CpLDH. Further, we have demonstrated that two of the CpLDH inhibitors effectively block the growth, proliferation and pathogenicity of C. parvum at tolerable doses in immunocompromised mice. Together, our findings have unveiled novel CpLDH inhibitors that can be explored for the development of efficacious therapeutic drugs against C. parvum infections.

Prevalence, risk factors and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium infection in cattle in Addis Ababa and its environs, Ethiopia

A cross-sectional study was conducted to determine the prevalence and risk factors of Cryptosporidium infection and identify species of the parasite in cattle in central Ethiopia. Faecal samples, collected from 392 dairy cattle managed under intensive and extensive production system, were analyzed by the Modified Ziehl-Neelsen (MZN) microscopy, Nested PCR, PCR-RFLP and sequence analyses of the SSU rRNA gene of Cryptosporidium. The overall prevalence, the prevalence in the extensive and intensive farms was 18.6%, 11% and 21%, respectively. The infection was detected in 37.7% of the investigated farms with prevalence range of 7.4% -100%, and all of the six surveyed districts with significant (P = 0.000) prevalence difference. Restriction digestion and sequence analysis showed Cryptosporidium parvum and C. andersoni in 27% and 73% of the infections, respectively, showing an age related distribution pattern, C. parvum exclusively occurring in calves <2 months old and C. andersoni only in heifers and adult cattle. The infection was significantly associated with management system, farm location, herd size, source of drinking water, weaning age, presence of bedding, pen cleanness and cleanness of hindquarter. In conclusion, Cryptosporidium infection due to C. parvum and C. andersoni was prevalent in cattle in the study area. Cryptosporidium parvum has the concern of public health importance, especially to farm workers and people in close contact with cattle. Instigation of imperative control measure is suggested to lessen the risk of human infection and loss of production in dairy farms.

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Cryptosporidium infection, due to C. parvum and C. andersoni, is widespread in cattle in central Ethiopia.

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C parvum and C andersoni exclusively occurred in calves <2 months and in adult cattle, respectively, showing an age related distribution pattern.

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Risk factors of Cryptosporidium were mainly associated with management and hygienic condition of animals.

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existence of the zoonotic C parvum Spp,alerts instigation of urgent preventive/control measures.

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Molecular tools are crucial to characterize Cryptosporidium species

Age patterns of Cryptosporidium species and Giardia duodenalis in dairy calves in Egypt

Little is known of the occurrence and age patterns of species/genotypes and subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in calves in Egypt. In this study, 248 fecal specimens were collected from dairy calves aged 1 day to 6 months on eight farms in three provinces during March 2015 to April 2016. Cryptosporidium spp. were detected and genotyped by using PCR-RFLP analysis of the small subunit rRNA (SSU rRNA) gene, while G. duodenalis was detected and genotyped by using PCR and sequence analyses of the triose phosphate isomerase (tpi), glutamate dehydrogenase (gdh) and β-giardin (bg) genes. The overall infection rates of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were 9.7 and 13.3%, respectively. The highest Cryptosporidium infection rate (26.7%) was in calves of age ≤ 1 month while the highest G. duodenalis infection rate (44.4%) was in calves of 2 months. Three Cryptosporidium spp. were identified, including C. parvum (n = 16), C. bovis (n = 5) and C. ryanae (n = 3), with the former being almost exclusively found in calves of ≤3 months of age and the latter two being only found in calves of over 3 months. Subtyping of C. parvum by PCR-sequence analysis of the 60 kDa glycoprotein gene identified subtypes IIaA15G1R1 (n = 15) and IIaA15G2R1 (n = 1). The G. duodenalis identified included both assemblages E (n = 32) and A (n = 1), with the latter belonging to the anthroponotic subtype A2. These data provide new insights into the genetic diversity and age patterns of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in calves in Egypt.

Morpholino-mediated in vivo silencing of Cryptosporidium parvum lactate dehydrogenase decreases oocyst shedding and infectivity

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An in vivo morpholino-based approach for targeted gene knockdown of genes in Cryptosporidium parvum was developed.

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Cryptosporidium parvum lactate dehydrogenase, and sporozoite 60K were knocked down sustainably in infected mice.

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Cryptosporidium parvum lactate dehydrogenase knockdown significantly decreased oocyst shedding and infectivity.

Cryptosporidium is a highly prevalent protozoan parasite that is the second leading cause of childhood morbidity and mortality due to diarrhoea in developing countries, and causes a serious diarrheal syndrome in calves, lambs and goat kids worldwide. Development of fully effective drugs against Cryptosporidium has mainly been hindered by the lack of genetic tools for functional characterization and validation of potential molecular drug targets in the parasite. Herein, we report the development of a morpholino-based in vivo approach for Cryptosporidium parvum gene knockdown to facilitate determination of the physiological roles of the parasite’s genes in a murine model. We show that, when administered intraperitoneally at non-toxic doses, morpholinos targeting C. parvum lactate dehydrogenase (CpLDH) and sporozoite 60K protein (Cp15/60) were able to specifically and sustainably down-regulate the expression of CpLDH and Cp15/60 proteins, respectively, in C. parvum-infected interferon-γ knockout mice. Over a period of 6 days of daily administration of target morpholinos, CpLDH and Cp15/60 proteins were down-regulated by 20- to 50-fold, and 10- to 20-fold, respectively. Knockdown of CpLDH resulted in approximately 80% reduction in oocyst load in the feces of mice, and approximately 70% decrease in infectivity of the sporozoites excysted from the shed oocysts. Cp15/60 knockdown did not affect oocyst shedding nor infectivity but, nevertheless, provided a proof-of-principle for the resilience of the morpholino-mediated C. parvum gene knockdown system in vivo. Together, our findings provide a genetic tool for deciphering the physiological roles of C. parvum genes in vivo, and validate CpLDH as an essential gene for the growth and viability of C. parvum in vivo.

Molecular investigation of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in pre- and post-weaned calves in Hubei Province, China

Background

The protistan pathogens Cryptosporidium and Giardia can cause significant intestinal diseases in animals and humans. Cattle, particularly calves, carrying these protists can be significant reservoirs for human infections and disease. However, little is known about the genetic make-up of Cryptosporidium and Giardia populations in cattle and other ruminants in some regions of China.

Results

In the present study, PCR-based tools were used to genetically characterise these protists in faecal samples from a total of 339 pre- and post-weaned calves from four distinct locations in Hubei Province using markers in the large (LSU) or small (SSU) subunits of nuclear ribosomal RNA genes. Cryptosporidium andersoni, C. bovis, C. ryanae and Giardia duodenalis assemblage E were detected in 0.6%, 10.9%, 4.1% and 22.6% of calves, respectively.

Conclusions

This study is the first to report the prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in pre- and post-weaned calves in Hubei Province, and encourages large-scale molecular studies of animals and humans, in an effort to better understand the epidemiology of these enteric pathogens in China.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-017-2463-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Molecular characterisation of protist parasites in human-habituated mountain gorillas (Gorilla beringei beringei), humans and livestock, from Bwindi impenetrable National Park, Uganda

Background

Over 60 % of human emerging infectious diseases are zoonotic, and there is growing evidence of the zooanthroponotic transmission of diseases from humans to livestock and wildlife species, with major implications for public health, economics, and conservation. Zooanthroponoses are of relevance to critically endangered species; amongst these is the mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) of Uganda. Here, we assess the occurrence of Cryptosporidium, Cyclospora, Giardia, and Entamoeba infecting mountain gorillas in the Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda, using molecular methods. We also assess the occurrence of these parasites in humans and livestock species living in overlapping/adjacent geographical regions.

Results

Diagnostic PCR detected Cryptosporidium parvum in one sample from a mountain gorilla (IIdA23G2) and one from a goat (based on SSU). Cryptosporidium was not detected in humans or cattle. Cyclospora was not detected in any of the samples analysed. Giardia was identified in three human and two cattle samples, which were linked to assemblage A, B and E of G. duodenalis. Sequences defined as belonging to the genus Entamoeba were identified in all host groups. Of the 86 sequence types characterised, one, seven and two have been recorded previously to represent genotypes of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, and Entamoeba, respectively, from humans, other mammals, and water sources globally.

Conclusions

This study provides a snapshot of the occurrence and genetic make-up of selected protists in mammals in and around BINP. The genetic analyses indicated that 54.6% of the 203 samples analysed contained parasites that matched species, genotypes, or genetic assemblages found globally. Seventy-six new sequence records were identified here for the first time. As nothing is known about the zoonotic/zooanthroponotic potential of the corresponding parasites, future work should focus on wider epidemiological investigations together with continued surveillance of all parasites in humans, other mammals, the environment, and water in this highly impoverished area.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-017-2283-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Targeted gene knockdown validates the essential role of lactate dehydrogenase in Cryptosporidium parvum

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Morpholino oligomers antisense approach was developed as a reverse genetic tool in Cryptosporidium parvum.

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Significant knockdown of C. parvum LDH and arginine methyltransferase was achieved using gene-target morpholinos.

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Knockdown of C. parvum LDH dramatically decreased growth of C. parvum in vitro.

Cryptosporidium parvum is a zoonotic protozoan that can cause a life-threatening gastrointestinal syndrome in children and in immunocompromised adults. Currently, the only approved drug for treatment of Cryptosporidium infections in humans is nitazoxanide, but it is not effective in immunocompromised individuals or in children with malnutrition. This is compounded by the lack of genetic methods for studying and validating potential drug targets in the parasite. Therefore, in this study, we endeavoured to adapt the use of a phosphorodiamidate morpholino oligomer (morpholino) antisense approach to develop a targeted gene knockdown assay for use in C. parvum. We show that morpholinos, at non-toxic concentrations, are rapidly internalised by both C. parvum and host cells (HCT-8), and distribute diffusely throughout the cytosol. Using morpholinos to separately target C. parvum lactate dehydrogenase and putative arginine n-methyltransferase genes, within 36 h of in vitro culture, we achieved over 10-fold down-regulation of the respective encoded proteins in C. parvum. Pursuant to this, we observed that knockdown of C. parvum lactate dehydrogenase produced a dramatic reduction in intracellular growth and development of C. parvum by 56 h of culture. On the other hand, C. parvum putative arginine n-methyltransferase knockdown did not appear to have any effect on parasite growth, but nevertheless provided the proof-of-principle that the morpholino knockdown assay in C. parvum was consistent. Together, our findings present a gene regulation approach for interrogating gene function in C. parvum in vitro, and further provide genetic evidence for the essential role of C. parvum lactate dehydrogenase in fueling the growth and development of intracellular C. parvum.

Multilocus typing of Cryptosporidium spp. in young calves with diarrhea in Korea

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Cryptosporidium spp. were detected using PCR and ELISA in diarrheal feces from calves.

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PCR and ELISA data showed good agreement in detecting C. parvum.

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Multilocus typing with 18S rRNA, gp60, and hsp70 genes of C. parvum was performed.

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Subtyping of C. parvum gp60 gene first revealed IIaA18G3R1 and IIaA16G3R1 in Asia.

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PCR and sequencing of hsp70 gene clearly differentiated C. bovis and C. ryanae.

We assessed the prevalence and performed molecular analysis of Cryptosporidium spp. in diarrheal feces of calves in Korea. Diarrheal fecal samples were collected from 951 young calves (<3 months) on 425 farms. Cryptosporidium prevalence was assessed by PCR and ELISA, and molecular characterization was performed by targeting the 18S rRNA, heat-shock protein 70 (hsp70), and glycoprotein 60 (gp60) genes. Data were analyzed according to the sex, type of cattle, region, season, and type of diarrhea. PCR analysis revealed Cryptosporidium spp. in 9.9% (94/951) of diarrheal fecal samples. C. parvum and C. bovis/ryanae were present in 6.1% (58/951) and 4.1% (39/951) of diarrheal fecal samples, respectively. In addition, ELISA showed positive results for C. parvum in 9.7% (92/951) samples. Statistical analysis of the PCR and ELISA results revealed a lower prevalence of C. parvum in the hemorrhagic diarrheal samples (P < 0.05). For C. bovis/ryanae, seasonality and high prevalence in hemorrhagic diarrhea were observed (P < 0.05). Of the 951 samples tested for C. parvum, 903 samples showed agreement with a κ value of 0.65, indicating good agreement between the two tests. Although C. bovis and C. ryanae share highly similar 18S rRNA sequences, PCR based on hsp70 successfully distinguished C. bovis from C. ryanae. Sequence analysis of gp60 revealed that C. parvum belonged to the IIa families and was further subtyped as IIaA18G3R1 and IIaA16G3R1, which have not been previously reported in Asia. These findings indicate that Cryptosporidium spp. play an important role in diarrhea in young calves in Korea. Considering the zoonotic significance of C. parvum IIa subtype and dense rearing system of cattle in Korea, prevention and continuous monitoring of Cryptosporidium are required.

Molecular identification of the Cryptosporidium deer genotype in the Hokkaido sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in Hokkaido, Japan

The protozoan Cryptosporidium occurs in a wide range of animal species including many Cervidae species. Fecal samples collected from the Hokkaido sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis), a native deer of Hokkaido, in the central, western, and eastern areas of Hokkaido were examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to detect infections with Cryptosporidium and for sequence analyses to reveal the molecular characteristics of the amplified DNA. DNA was extracted from 319 fecal samples and examined with PCR using primers for small-subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA), actin, and 70-kDa heat shock protein (HSP70) gene loci. PCR-amplified fragments were sequenced and phylogenetic trees were created. In 319 fecal samples, 25 samples (7.8 %) were positive with SSU-rRNA PCR that were identified as the Cryptosporidium deer genotype. Among Cryptosporidium-positive samples, fawns showed higher prevalence (16.1 %) than yearlings (6.4 %) and adults (4.7 %). The result of Fisher's exact test showed a statistical significance in the prevalence of the Cryptosporidium deer genotype between fawn and other age groups. Sequence analyses with actin and HSP70 gene fragments confirmed the SSU-rRNA result, and there were no sequence diversities observed. The Cryptosporidium deer genotype appears to be the prevalent Cryptosporidium species in the wild sika deer in Hokkaido, Japan.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium parvum from two different Japanese prefectures, Okinawa and Hokkaido

Infectious diarrhea is the most frequent cause of morbidity and mortality in neonatal calves. Cryptosporidium parvum is one of the main pathogens associated with calf diarrhea. Although diarrhea is a symptom of infection with various pathogens, investigations to detect the types of pathogens have never been performed in Japan. This study investigated the prevalence of four major diarrhea-causing pathogens in calves: C. parvum, rotavirus, coronavirus, and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (E. coli K99). Commercial immunochromatography testing of all four pathogens and molecular analysis of C. parvum with diarrhea in calves from southernmost Okinawa and northernmost Hokkaido, Japan, were conducted. The frequencies of C. parvum, rotavirus, coronavirus, and E. coli (K99) in Okinawa were 50%, 28%, 2.3%, and 4.7%, respectively. Watery fecal stools were significantly correlated with C. parvum (p < 0.05). In oocyst calculations for C. parvum, no significant difference was observed between the single-infection cases and the mixed-infection cases with rotavirus. Interestingly, molecular analyses targeting small subunit ribosomal RNA as well as glycoprotein 60 (GP60) genes revealed that the C. parvum nucleotide sequences from the two prefectures were identical, indicating that C. parvum with a uniform characteristic is distributed throughout Japan. GP60 subtyping analysis identified C. parvum from Okinawa and Hokkaido as belonging to the IIaA15G2R1 subtype, a known zoonotic subtype. Hence, control of cryptosporidiosis is important not only for pre-weaned calves, but also for human health.

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ICT strips were used for calf diarrhea to detect four major enteric pathogens.

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C. parvum showed the highest frequency in the southernmost Okinawa prefecture, Japan.

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C. parvum from the northernmost Hokkaido prefecture was used for a comparative study.

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C. parvum from the two prefectures had a uniform character in SSUrRNA and GP60 genes.

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GP60 subtyping revealed that IIaA15G2R1, a known zoonotic subtype, was predominant.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in children from Mexico

Cryptosporidiosis is a parasitic disease caused by Cryptosporidium spp. In immunocompetent individuals, it usually causes an acute and self-limited diarrhea; in infants, infection with Cryptosporidium spp. can cause malnutrition and growth retardation, and declined cognitive ability. In this study, we described for the first time the distribution of C. parvum and C. hominis subtypes in 12 children in Mexico by sequence characterization of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (GP60) gene of Cryptosporidium. Altogether, 7 subtypes belonging to 4 subtype families of C. hominis (Ia, Ib, Id and Ie) and 1 subtype family of C. parvum (IIa) were detected, including IaA14R3, IaA15R3, IbA10G2, IdA17, IeA11G3T3, IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA16G1R1. The frequency of the subtype families and subtypes in the samples analyzed in this study differed from what was observed in other countries.

Cryptosporidiosis and Cryptosporidium species in animals and humans: a thirty colour rainbow?

Parasites of the genus Cryptosporidium (Apicomplexa) cause cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals worldwide. The species names used for Cryptosporidium spp. are confusing for parasitologists and even more so for non-specialists. Here, 30 named species of the genus Cryptosporidium are reviewed and proposed as valid. Molecular and experimental evidence suggests that humans and cattle are the hosts for 14 and 13 out of 30 named species, respectively. Two, four and eight named species are considered of major, moderate and minor public health significance, respectively. There are at least nine named species that are shared between humans and cattle. The aim of this review is to outline available species information together with the most commonly used genetic markers enabling the identification of named Cryptosporidium spp. Currently, 28 of 30 named species can be identified using the complete or partial ssrRNA, serving as a retrospective 'barcode'. Currently, the ssrRNA satisfies the implicit assumption that the reference databases used for comparison are sufficiently complete and applicable across the whole genus. However, due to unreliable annotation in public DNA repositories, the reference nucleotide entries and alignment of named Cryptosporidium spp. has been compiled. Despite its known limitations, ssrRNA remains the optimal marker for species identification.

Cryptosporidiosis in Farmed Animals

Cryptosporidiosis was first identified as a disease of veterinary, rather than human medical, importance, and infection of farmed animals with different species of Cryptosporidium continues to be of veterinary clinical concern. This chapter provides insights into Cryptosporidium infection in a range of farmed animals – cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, cervids, camelids, rabbits, water buffalo and poultry – presenting not only an updated overview of the infection in these animals, but also information on clinical disease, infection dynamics and zoonotic potential. Although extensive data have been accrued on, for example, Cryptosporidium parvum infection in calves, and calf cryptosporidiosis continues to be a major veterinary concern especially in temperate regions, there remains a paucity of data for other farmed animals, despite Cryptosporidium infection causing significant clinical disease and also, for some species, with the potential for transmission of infection to people, either directly or indirectly.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates from calves in Ishikari District, Hokkaido, Japan

Cattle are major hosts of Cryptosporidium. Cryptosporidiosis in neonatal calves is associated with retarded growth, weight loss and calf mortality, and zoonotic infections in humans. Fecal samples were collected from calves in Ishikari District, Hokkaido, Japan and examined by PCR and sequence analyses. Among the 107 fecal samples collected in May and June 2012, 25 (23%) were positive for Cryptosporidium, including 8 samples (7%) having C. parvum, 10 (9%) having C. bovis and 7 (7%) having C. ryanae. This is first time C. ryanae has been detected in Hokkaido. Furthermore, it is the first detection of C. ryanae from pre-weaned calves in Japan. Microscopic observation with the flotation method is powerful and traditional tool for screening for Cryptosporidium species, but it sometimes leads to low detection of Cryptosporidium with low oocyst shedding intensity. If calves with or without diarrhea are examined using the molecular diagnostic tools, C. bovis and C. ryanae might be detected in other areas of Japan including Hokkaido. Here, the zoonotic species, C. parvum, was also observed. Therefore, calves can be potential sources of cryptosporidial infections for humans and other animals. The detection of C. parvum was statistically correlated with diarrhea in calves.

Distribution and genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned dairy calves in Northeastern China's Heilongjiang Province

Background

Cryptosporidium spp. are common parasites of humans and animals. Farm animals, especially pre-weaned calves, are considered to be one of main animal reservoir hosts of Cryptosporidium in the transmission of human cryptosporidiosis. The aim of this study was to determine the distribution and genotypes of Cryptosporidium spp. in pre-weaned calves using molecular tools and to assess zoonotic transmission and elucidate the public health significance in northeastern China.

Methodology/Principal Findings

A total of 151 fecal specimens from pre-weaned calves were collected in Heilongjiang Province and were screened for Cryptosporidium by PCR. The average prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 47.68% (72/151). Cryptosporidium spp. were characterized by DNA sequencing of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene and the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. Based on the SSU rRNA gene, five Cryptosporidium spp. were identified, including C. bovis (n = 34), C. andersoni (n = 26), C. ryanae (n = 5), C. meleagridis (n = 5) and C. parvum (n = 2). The SSU rRNA nucleotide sequences were identical to each other, respectively, within C. ryanae, C. parvum, C. meleagridis and C. andersoni. Four types of C. bovis were found in the SSU rRNA gene, with two novel types. The gp60 gene was successfully sequenced in one C. parvum isolate and three C. meleagridis isolates, with IIdA19G1 for C. parvum and IIIeA22G2R1 for C. meleagridis.

Conclusion/Significance

Molecular analysis indicates that Cryptosporidium spp. are endemic in pre-weaned calves in Heilongjiang Province. The findings of C. parvum and C. meleagridis suggested the possibility of zoonotic transmission and public health significance. The transmission dynamics of C. parvum and C. meleagridis needed to be clarified by further molecular epidemiologic studies from humans and animals. Whether calves could act as the natural reservoirs of C. meleagridis needed to be confirmed by more systematic experimental infection studies.

Cryptosporidium species in Australian wildlife and domestic animals

Cryptosporidium is an important enteric parasite that is transmitted via the fecal-oral route, water and food. Humans, wildlife and domestic livestock all potentially contribute Cryptosporidium to surface waters. Most species of Cryptosporidium are morphologically indistinguishable and can only be identified using molecular tools. Over 24 species have been identified and of these, 7 Cryptosporidium species/genotypes are responsible for most human cryptosporidiosis cases. In Australia, relatively few genotyping studies have been conducted. Six Cryptosporidium species (C. hominis, C. parvum, C. meleagridis, C. fayeri, C. andersoni and C. bovis) have been identified in humans in Australia. However, little is known about the contribution of animal hosts to human pathogenic strains of Cryptosporidium in drinking water catchments. In this review, we focus on the available genotyping data for native, feral and domestic animals inhabiting drinking water catchments in Australia to provide an improved understanding of the public health implications and to identify key research gaps.

Factors influencing on prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in south Indian dairy calves

The objectives of the present study were to report the influence of factors like age, sex, breed, dung consistency and rearing system on prevalence of Cryptosporidium spp. in south Indian cattle. Two-step nested PCR was employed for detection of Cryptosporidium infection in dairy calves of south Indian states viz., Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and union territory i.e., Puducherry. A total of 459 dung samples from the calves were subjected to nested PCR, 182 were found positive with prevalence percent of 39.65. Age wise comparison showed a high prevalence of Cryptosporidium in the age group of one month old calves. This concludes that the cryptosporidiosis is highly age dependent with young calves showed the highest prevalence. Depending on the group had consistency of dung, the highest prevalence of Cryptosporidium was observed in semi-solid dung, followed by formed and the diarrhoeic group animals. Female calves showed slightly higher prevalence rate than male animals. Cow calves had an overall prevalence percent of 40.75 and the infection rate in buffalo calves was 36.28 %. In relation to rearing system, individual animals had 42.18 % and farm animals showed 38.46 % of Cryptosporidium infection. In conclusion, the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in dairy calves should be correlated with the factors like age, sex, breed, dung consistency and rearing system of the animal to arrive at a reliable epidemiological data on bovine cryptosporidiosis.

Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. in grazing beef cattle in Japan

Cattle are major hosts of Cryptosporidium spp. Cryptosporidiosis in neonatal calves is associated with retarded growth, weight loss and calf mortality, and zoonotic infections in humans. In many areas, cow-calf glazing system is an important beef cattle rearing method with distinct advantages in terms of cost and the labor required. However, few epidemiologic studies of Cryptosporidium spp. have been conducted in this system, especially using molecular diagnostic tools. To understand the transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. in a grazing system, we followed cryptosporidiosis on a grazing farm in Osaki City, Miyagi Prefecture, in northwest Japan for one year. Fecal samples were collected from Japanese Black and Japanese Shorthorn cattle and examined by PCR-RFLP and sequence analyses. Of 113 fecal samples collected in October 2010, 23 (20%) were positive for Cryptosporidium, including 15 samples (13%) having C. bovis, 6 (5%) having C. ryanae, and 2 (2%) having mixed infections of both species. Additionally, C. bovis or C. ryanae was detected on all other sampling dates involving smaller numbers of animals. The infection rate of C. bovis was significantly different among age groups, and calve-to-calve infection might be the major route of cryptosporidiosis transmission in beef cattle. Interestingly, one animal had C. bovis infection or re-infection for one year. Our results suggest that C. bovis and C. ryanae are distributed in Japan, but might have low level of detection in grazing beef cattle.

Characteristics of Cryptosporidium transmission in preweaned dairy cattle in Henan, China

To estimate the prevalence and public health significance of cryptosporidiosis in preweaned calves in China, 801 fecal samples from eight farms in seven areas in Henan Province were examined for Cryptosporidium oocysts. The overall infection rate of Cryptosporidium was 21.5%, with the farm in Xinxiang having the highest prevalence (40%). No significant difference in infection rates was observed between seasons. Cryptosporidium spp. were characterized by PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis of the small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene and DNA sequencing of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. The SSU rRNA-based PCR identified four Cryptosporidium species, including Cryptosporidium parvum (54/172), C. bovis (65/172), C. ryanae (19/172), and C. andersoni (12/172), and the occurrence of infections with mixed species (22/172). The earliest detection of C. bovis was in calves of 1 week of age, showing that the prepatent period was shorter than the previously stated 10 to 12 days. Infections with C. parvum peaked in summer, whereas C. bovis dominated in autumn and winter. There was no apparent difference in the age of cattle infected with either C. parvum or C. bovis. Sequencing analysis of the gp60 gene showed all 67 C. parvum samples belonged to subtype IIdA19G1. These findings suggested that the transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. in preweaned calves in Henan, China, appeared to be different from other areas both at genotype and subtype levels. Further molecular epidemiologic studies (including samples from both calves and humans) are needed to elucidate the transmission dynamics and public significance of C. parvum in cattle in China.