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Fitzsimmons L, Kelly GL. EBV and Apoptosis: The Viral Master Regulator of Cell Fate? Viruses 2017; 9:E339. [PMID: 29137176 PMCID: PMC5707546 DOI: 10.3390/v9110339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) was first discovered in cells from a patient with Burkitt lymphoma (BL), and is now known to be a contributory factor in 1-2% of all cancers, for which there are as yet, no EBV-targeted therapies available. Like other herpesviruses, EBV adopts a persistent latent infection in vivo and only rarely reactivates into replicative lytic cycle. Although latency is associated with restricted patterns of gene expression, genes are never expressed in isolation; always in groups. Here, we discuss (1) the ways in which the latent genes of EBV are known to modulate cell death, (2) how these mechanisms relate to growth transformation and lymphomagenesis, and (3) how EBV genes cooperate to coordinately regulate key cell death pathways in BL and lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Since manipulation of the cell death machinery is critical in EBV pathogenesis, understanding the mechanisms that underpin EBV regulation of apoptosis therefore provides opportunities for novel therapeutic interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Fitzsimmons
- Institute of Cancer and Genomic Sciences and Centre for Human Virology, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
| | - Gemma L Kelly
- Molecular Genetics of Cancer Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute for Medical Research, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia.
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2
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Nishikawa J, Iizasa H, Yoshiyama H, Nakamura M, Saito M, Sasaki S, Shimokuri K, Yanagihara M, Sakai K, Suehiro Y, Yamasaki T, Sakaida I. The Role of Epigenetic Regulation in Epstein-Barr Virus-Associated Gastric Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18081606. [PMID: 28757548 PMCID: PMC5577998 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18081606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is detected in about 10% of gastric carcinoma cases throughout the world. In EBV-associated gastric carcinoma (EBVaGC), all tumor cells harbor the clonal EBV genome. The expression of latent EBV genes is strictly regulated through the methylation of EBV DNA. The methylation of viral DNA regulates the type of EBV latency, and methylation of the tumor suppressor genes is a key abnormality in EBVaGC. The methylation frequencies of several tumor suppressor genes and cell adhesion molecules are significantly higher in EBVaGC than in control cases. EBV-derived microRNAs repress translation from viral and host mRNAs. EBV regulates the expression of non-coding RNA in gastric carcinoma. With regard to the clinical application of demethylating agents against EBVaGC, we investigated the effects of decitabine against the EBVaGC cell lines. Decitabine inhibited the cell growth of EBVaGC cells. The promoter regions of p73 and Runt-related transcription factor 3(RUNX3) were demethylated, and their expression was upregulated by the treatment. We review the role of epigenetic regulation in the development and maintenance of EBVaGC and discuss the therapeutic application of DNA demethylating agents for EBVaGC.
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MESH Headings
- Antimetabolites, Antineoplastic/pharmacology
- Antimetabolites, Antineoplastic/therapeutic use
- Azacitidine/analogs & derivatives
- Azacitidine/pharmacology
- Azacitidine/therapeutic use
- Core Binding Factor Alpha 3 Subunit/genetics
- CpG Islands/drug effects
- DNA Methylation/drug effects
- DNA, Viral/genetics
- Decitabine
- Epigenesis, Genetic/drug effects
- Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/drug therapy
- Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/genetics
- Epstein-Barr Virus Infections/virology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral/drug effects
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/drug effects
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/genetics
- Herpesvirus 4, Human/pathogenicity
- Humans
- MicroRNAs/genetics
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- Stomach Neoplasms/drug therapy
- Stomach Neoplasms/genetics
- Stomach Neoplasms/virology
- Tumor Protein p73/genetics
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Nishikawa
- Department of Laboratory Science, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Hisashi Iizasa
- Department of Microbiology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enyacho, Izumo City, Shimane 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Hironori Yoshiyama
- Department of Microbiology, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enyacho, Izumo City, Shimane 693-8501, Japan.
| | - Munetaka Nakamura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Mari Saito
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Sho Sasaki
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Kanami Shimokuri
- Department of Laboratory Science, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Masashi Yanagihara
- Department of Laboratory Science, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Kouhei Sakai
- Department of Oncology and Laboratory Medicine, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Yutaka Suehiro
- Department of Oncology and Laboratory Medicine, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Takahiro Yamasaki
- Department of Oncology and Laboratory Medicine, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
| | - Isao Sakaida
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8505, Japan.
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3
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Nakamura M, Nishikawa J, Saito M, Sakai K, Sasaki S, Hashimoto S, Okamoto T, Suehiro Y, Yamasaki T, Sakaida I. Decitabine inhibits tumor cell proliferation and up-regulates e-cadherin expression in Epstein-Barr virus-associated gastric cancer. J Med Virol 2016; 89:508-517. [PMID: 27430892 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated the effect of a DNA demethylating agent, decitabine, against Epstein-Barr virus-associated gastric cancer (EBVaGC). Decitabine inhibited cell growth and induced G2/M arrest and apoptosis in EBVaGC cell lines. The expression of E-cadherin was up-regulated and cell motility was significantly inhibited in the cells treated with decitabine. The promoter regions of p73 and RUNX3 were demethylated, and their expression was up-regulated by decitabine. They enhanced the transcription of p21, which induced G2/M arrest and apoptosis through down-regulation of c-Myc. Decitabine also induced the expression of BZLF1 in SNU719. Induction of EBV lytic infection was an alternative way to cause apoptosis of the host cells. This study is the first report to reveal the effectiveness of a demethylating agent in inhibiting tumor cell proliferation and up-regulation of E-cadherin in EBVaGC. J. Med. Virol. 89:508-517, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Munetaka Nakamura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Jun Nishikawa
- Department of Laboratory Science, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Mari Saito
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Kouhei Sakai
- Department of Oncology and Laboratory Medicine, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Sho Sasaki
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Shinichi Hashimoto
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Takeshi Okamoto
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Yutaka Suehiro
- Department of Oncology and Laboratory Medicine, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Takahiro Yamasaki
- Department of Oncology and Laboratory Medicine, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
| | - Isao Sakaida
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Yamaguchi University Graduate School of Medicine, Ube, Yamaguchi, Japan
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Inhibition of germinal centre apoptotic programmes by epstein-barr virus. Adv Hematol 2011; 2011:829525. [PMID: 22110506 PMCID: PMC3202104 DOI: 10.1155/2011/829525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Accepted: 07/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
To establish a persistent latent infection, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) faces a challenge in that the virus-infected host cell must transit through the germinal centre reaction. This is a site of B cell differentiation where antibody responses are optimised, and the selection criteria for B cells are stringent. The germinal centre environment is harsh, and the vast majority of B cells here die by apoptosis. Only cells receiving adequate survival signals will differentiate fully to be released into the periphery as long-term memory B cells (the site of persistence). In this review, we detail the apoptotic pathways potentially encountered by EBV-infected B cells during the process of infection, and we describe the functions of those EBV-regulated cellular and viral genes that help promote survival of the host B cell.
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NF-kappaB-mediated modulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase activity controls induction of the Epstein-Barr virus productive cycle by transforming growth factor beta 1. J Virol 2011; 85:6502-12. [PMID: 21507981 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02560-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGF-β1) signal transduction has been implicated in many second-messenger pathways, including the NF-κB pathway. We provide evidence of a novel TGF-β1-mediated pathway that leads to extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 phosphorylation, which in turn induces expression of an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) protein, ZEBRA, that is responsible for the induction of the viral lytic cycle. This pathway includes two unexpected steps, both of which are required to control ERK 1/2 phosphorylation: first, a quick and transient activation of NF-κB, and second, downregulation of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) activity that requires the participation of NF-κB activity. Although necessary, NF-κB alone is not sufficient to produce downregulation of iNOS, suggesting that another uncharacterized event(s) is involved in this pathway. Dissection of the steps involved in the switch from the EBV latent cycle to the lytic cycle will be important to understand how virus-host relationships modulate the innate immune system.
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