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Cai ZY, Wu P, Liang H, Xie YZ, Zhang BX, He CL, Yang CR, Li H, Mo W, Yang ZH. A ZBP1 isoform blocks ZBP1-mediated cell death. Cell Rep 2024; 43:114221. [PMID: 38748877 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.114221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
ZBP1 is an interferon (IFN)-induced nucleic acid (NA) sensor that senses unusual Z-form NA (Z-NA) to promote cell death and inflammation. However, the mechanisms that dampen ZBP1 activation to fine-tune inflammatory responses are unclear. Here, we characterize a short isoform of ZBP1 (referred to as ZBP1-S) as an intrinsic suppressor of the inflammatory signaling mediated by full-length ZBP1. Mechanistically, ZBP1-S depresses ZBP1-mediated cell death by competitive binding with Z-NA for Zα domains of ZBP1. Cells from mice (Ripk1D325A/D325A) with cleavage-resistant RIPK1-induced autoinflammatory (CRIA) syndrome are alive but sensitive to IFN-induced and ZBP1-dependent cell death. Intriguingly, Ripk1D325A/D325A cells die spontaneously when ZBP1-S is deleted, indicating that cell death driven by ZBP1 is under the control of ZBP1-S. Thus, our findings reveal that alternative splicing of Zbp1 represents autogenic inhibition for regulating ZBP1 signaling and indicate that uncoupling of Z-NA with ZBP1 could be an effective strategy against autoinflammations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi-Yu Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; Department of Gastroenterology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China
| | - Puqi Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Hao Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Yu-Ze Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Bo-Xin Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China
| | - Cai-Ling He
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Cong-Rong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China
| | - Hongda Li
- Institute for Brain Science and Disease, Key Laboratory of Major Brain Disease and Aging Research (Ministry of Education), Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China
| | - Wei Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361102, China; Department of Gastroenterology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China; Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China; Institute for Brain Science and Disease, Key Laboratory of Major Brain Disease and Aging Research (Ministry of Education), Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, China.
| | - Zhang-Hua Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310012, China.
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Cao J, Zhong N, Wang G, Wang M, Zhang B, Fu B, Wang Y, Zhang T, Zhang Y, Yang K, Chen Y, Yuan Q, Xia N. Nanobody-based sandwich reporter system for living cell sensing influenza A virus infection. Sci Rep 2019; 9:15899. [PMID: 31685871 PMCID: PMC6828950 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-52258-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The influenza epidemic is a huge burden to public health. Current influenza vaccines provide limited protection against new variants due to frequent mutation of the virus. The continual emergence of novel variants necessitates the method rapidly monitoring influenza virus infection in experimental systems. Although several replication-competent reporter viruses carrying fluorescent proteins or small luciferase have been generated in previous studies, visualizing influenza virus infection via such strategy requires reverse genetic modification for each viral strain which is usually time-consuming and inconvenient. Here, we created a novel influenza A nucleoprotein (NP) dependent reporter gene transcription activation module using NP-specific nanobodies. Our results demonstrated the modular design allowed reporter genes (mNeonGreen fluorescent protein and Gaussia luciferase) specifically expressing to detect intracellular NP protein, and therefore acts as a universal biosensor to monitor infection of various influenza A subtypes in living cells. The new system may provide a powerful tool to analyze influenza A infections at the cellular level to facilitate new antiviral drug discovery. Moreover, this approach may easily extend to develop live-cell biosensors for other viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiali Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China
| | - Nicole Zhong
- Concordia International School Shanghai, 345 Huangyang Road Pudong, Shanghai, 201206, P.R. China
| | - Guosong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China
| | - Mingfeng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China
| | - Baohui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Baorong Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yingbin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Tianying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Yali Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
| | - Kunyu Yang
- Xiamen International Travel Healthcare Center, Xiamen, China
| | - Yixin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China.
| | - Quan Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China.
| | - Ningshao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, P.R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China
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Zhang Z, Zhang F, Bai S, Qiao J, Shen H, Huang F, Gao S, Li S, Gu Y, Xia N. Characterization and epitope mapping of a panel of monoclonal antibodies against HIV‐1 matrix protein. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2018; 65:807-815. [DOI: 10.1002/bab.1662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqing Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Feng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Shimeng Bai
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious DiseaseSchool of Life SciencesXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Jiaming Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Honglin Shen
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious DiseaseSchool of Life SciencesXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Fang Huang
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious DiseaseSchool of Life SciencesXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Shuangquan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Shaowei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious DiseaseSchool of Life SciencesXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious DiseaseSchool of Life SciencesXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
| | - Ningshao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular DiagnosticsSchool of Public HealthXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious DiseaseSchool of Life SciencesXiamen University Xiamen People's Republic of China
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Avilov S, Magnus J, Cusack S, Naffakh N. Time-Resolved Visualisation of Nearly-Native Influenza A Virus Progeny Ribonucleoproteins and Their Individual Components in Live Infected Cells. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0149986. [PMID: 26978069 PMCID: PMC4792379 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0149986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza viruses are a global health concern because of the permanent threat of novel emerging strains potentially capable of causing pandemics. Viral ribonucleoproteins (vRNPs) containing genomic RNA segments, nucleoprotein oligomers, and the viral polymerase, play a central role in the viral replication cycle. Our knowledge about critical events such as vRNP assembly and interactions with other viral and cellular proteins is poor and could be substantially improved by time lapse imaging of the infected cells. However, such studies are limited by the difficulty to achieve live-cell compatible labeling of active vRNPs. Previously we designed the first unimpaired recombinant influenza WSN-PB2-GFP11 virus allowing fluorescent labeling of the PB2 subunit of the viral polymerase (Avilov et al., J.Virol. 2012). Here, we simultaneously labeled the viral PB2 protein using the above-mentioned strategy, and virus-encoded progeny RNPs through spontaneous incorporation of transiently expressed NP-mCherry fusion proteins during RNP assembly in live infected cells. This dual labeling enabled us to visualize progeny vRNPs throughout the infection cycle and to characterize independently the mobility, oligomerization status and interactions of vRNP components in the nuclei of live infected cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergiy Avilov
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Grenoble Outstation, Grenoble, France
- University Grenoble Alpes-CNRS-EMBL International Unit (UMI 3265) for Virus Host-Cell Interactions, UMI 3265, Grenoble, France
- * E-mail: (NN); (SA)
| | - Julie Magnus
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Génétique Moléculaire des Virus à ARN, Département de Virologie, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR 3569, Paris, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Unité de Génétique Moléculaire des Virus à ARN, Paris, France
| | - Stephen Cusack
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Grenoble Outstation, Grenoble, France
- University Grenoble Alpes-CNRS-EMBL International Unit (UMI 3265) for Virus Host-Cell Interactions, UMI 3265, Grenoble, France
| | - Nadia Naffakh
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de Génétique Moléculaire des Virus à ARN, Département de Virologie, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR 3569, Paris, France
- Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Unité de Génétique Moléculaire des Virus à ARN, Paris, France
- * E-mail: (NN); (SA)
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Monod A, Swale C, Tarus B, Tissot A, Delmas B, Ruigrok RW, Crépin T, Slama-Schwok A. Learning from structure-based drug design and new antivirals targeting the ribonucleoprotein complex for the treatment of influenza. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2015; 10:345-71. [PMID: 25792362 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2015.1019859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Influenza viruses are a threat to human health. There are presently only two methods for treating influenza: vaccines, which require yearly updates, and two classes of antivirals that suffer with the problem of resistance by current human influenza viruses; this is especially the case with amantadine and rimantadine. Consequently, there is an urgent need for the development of new antivirals with new mechanisms of action. AREAS COVERED In this review, the authors focus on viral protein domains, their associated activity and their inhibition by small molecules defined by a structure-based design with a special emphasis on the ribonucleoprotein complex and its inhibitors. Several new classes of antiviral candidates targeting viral replication through individual domains of the polymerase and the nucleoprotein (NP) have been developed through structure-based design. EXPERT OPINION To date, the antivirals targeting neuraminidase are by far the most developed and potent. Antiviral candidates targeting the NP and polymerase domains are in the pipeline but their pharmacokinetics needs further studies. The recently published structures of the polymerase expand the possibilities for development of new antivirals. Combination therapies targeting conserved viral targets and new cellular proteins or exploiting drug promiscuity hold promises to fight against the emergence of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Monod
- University of Grenoble Alpes-EMBL-CNRS, Unit for Virus Host-Cell Interactions , 71 avenue des Martyrs, 38042 Grenoble , France
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Narkpuk J, Jaru-Ampornpan P, Subali T, Bertulfo FCT, Wongthida P, Jongkaewwattana A. Mechanistic study of intertypic nucleoprotein complex formation and its inhibitory effect toward influenza A virus. Virology 2015. [PMID: 26218215 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2015.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Co-infection of influenza A and B viruses (IAV and IBV) results in marked decreases in IAV replication. Multiple mechanisms have been proposed for this phenomenon. Recently, we reported that IBV nucleoprotein (BNP) alone can suppress IAV replication and proposed an inhibition model in which BNP binds IAV nucleoprotein (ANP) and disrupts IAV polymerase complexes. Here, using mutagenesis and co-immunoprecipitation, we determined the protein motifs mediating the intertypic ANP-BNP complex and showed that it specifically interferes with ANP׳s interaction with the PB2 subunit of the IAV polymerase but not with the other subunit PB1. We further demonstrated that BNP only suppresses growth of IAVs but not other RNA viruses. However, different IAV strains display varied sensitivity toward the BNP׳s inhibitory effect. Together, our data provide mechanistic insights into intertypic nucleoprotein complex formation and highlight the role of BNP as a potential broad-spectrum anti-IAV agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaraspim Narkpuk
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, Thailand
| | - Peera Jaru-Ampornpan
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, Thailand.
| | - Theressa Subali
- Faculty of Biotechnology, Atma Jaya Catholic University of Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia
| | - Fatima Carla T Bertulfo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of the Phillipines Los Banos, Laguna, Phillipines
| | - Phonphimon Wongthida
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, Thailand
| | - Anan Jongkaewwattana
- Virology and Cell Technology Laboratory, National Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (BIOTEC), National Science and Technology Development Agency (NSTDA), Pathumthani, Thailand.
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Chen Y, Chan KH, Kang Y, Chen H, Luk HKH, Poon RWS, Chan JFW, Yuen KY, Xia N, Lau SKP, Woo PCY. A sensitive and specific antigen detection assay for Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus. Emerg Microbes Infect 2015; 4:e26. [PMID: 26421268 PMCID: PMC4575394 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2015.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2015] [Revised: 03/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Since its emergence in 2012, more than 900 laboratory-confirmed cases of Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) have been reported with a fatality rate of more than 30%. However, no antigen detection assay for commercial use is available for diagnosis. In this study, the full-length nucleocapsid protein (NP) gene of MERS coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. A MERS-CoV NP capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using two MERS-CoV-NP-specific monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) generated was developed. The ELISA was evaluated using 129 nasopharyngeal aspirates (NPAs) positive for various respiratory viruses and simulated positive NPAs by adding serial dilutions of MERS-CoV. Using a cutoff OD of 0.19, all 129 NPAs positive for respiratory viruses showed very low OD, with a specificity of 100%. For the two simulated MERS-CoV-positive NPAs with serial dilutions of live MERS-CoV, all samples with ≥10 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID50)/0.1 mL showed positive results. For the 10 additional NPAs with 20 and 200 TCID50/0.1 mL of live MERS-CoV added, all were positive. A highly sensitive and specific MAbs-based antigen capture ELISA has been developed for MERS. This sensitive and specific antigen capture ELISA should be useful for detection of MERS-CoV in human and dromedaries and in field studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yixin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University , Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China ; National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University , Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China
| | - Kwok-Hung Chan
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Yahong Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University , Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China ; National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University , Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China
| | - Honglin Chen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Hayes K H Luk
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Rosana W S Poon
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Jasper F W Chan
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Kwok-Yung Yuen
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Ningshao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University , Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China ; National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Diseases, School of Public Health, Xiamen University , Xiamen 361102, Fujian Province, China
| | - Susanna K P Lau
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
| | - Patrick C Y Woo
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China ; Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong , Hong Kong, China
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