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Tissue Tropism of H9N2 Low-Pathogenic Avian Influenza Virus in Broiler Chickens by Immunohistochemistry. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13061052. [PMID: 36978594 PMCID: PMC10044543 DOI: 10.3390/ani13061052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The H9N2 subtype of low-pathogenic avian influenza viruses (LPAIV) is a widespread pathogen of poultry that can also infect humans. The characterization of viral infections is a complex process, involving clinical, pathological, and virological investigations. The aim of this study was to adapt and optimize an immunohistochemical (IHC) technique developed for LPAIVs specifically for the detection of H9N2 virus antigens in infected tissues. Twenty-one-day-old broiler chickens were inoculated with three different strains of H9N2 virus by different infection routes (i.e., intranasal-intratracheal and intravenous) or co-infected with infectious bronchitis virus (IBV) and observed for 11 days post infection. The suggested IHC protocol was modified: (i) DAB (diamino-benzidine) was substituted with AEC (3-amino-9-ethyl carbazole) as chromogen; and (ii) indirect two-step immune reactions of monoclonal primary and peroxidase-labeled anti-mouse secondary antibodies were used instead of avidin–biotin complexes. Avian influenza virus antigen appears as a red precipitate in the nuclei of affected cells but can also be identified in the cytoplasm. Mild hyperemia and congestion were observed in the trachea, air sac, and lungs of the challenged birds, and fibrinous exudate was found at the bifurcation in a few cases. Neither gross pathological nor IHC lesions were found in the control group. Using the optimized protocol and an associated scoring scheme, it was demonstrated that the H9N2 strains tested exhibited respiratory and urinary tract tropism irrespective of the route of inoculation. On day 5, viral antigen was detected in the respiratory tract and kidney in 30–50% of the samples. On day 11, no IHC signal was observed, indicating the lack of viral replication. Slight differences in viral antigen expression were found between the different H9N2 virus strains, but, in contrast to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), no viral antigen was detected in the brain and pancreas. Thus, IHC can be considered as an informative, visual addition to the toolkit for the characterization of H9N2 LPAIV infections.
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The Contribution of Viral Proteins to the Synergy of Influenza and Bacterial Co-Infection. Viruses 2022; 14:v14051064. [PMID: 35632805 PMCID: PMC9143653 DOI: 10.3390/v14051064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
A severe course of acute respiratory disease caused by influenza A virus (IAV) infection is often linked with subsequent bacterial superinfection, which is difficult to cure. Thus, synergistic influenza-bacterial co-infection represents a serious medical problem. The pathogenic changes in the infected host are accelerated as a consequence of IAV infection, reflecting its impact on the host immune response. IAV infection triggers a complex process linked with the blocking of innate and adaptive immune mechanisms required for effective antiviral defense. Such disbalance of the immune system allows for easier initiation of bacterial superinfection. Therefore, many new studies have emerged that aim to explain why viral-bacterial co-infection can lead to severe respiratory disease with possible fatal outcomes. In this review, we discuss the key role of several IAV proteins-namely, PB1-F2, hemagglutinin (HA), neuraminidase (NA), and NS1-known to play a role in modulating the immune defense of the host, which consequently escalates the development of secondary bacterial infection, most often caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Understanding the mechanisms leading to pathological disorders caused by bacterial superinfection after the previous viral infection is important for the development of more effective means of prevention; for example, by vaccination or through therapy using antiviral drugs targeted at critical viral proteins.
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3
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Chrzastek K, Leng J, Zakaria MK, Bialy D, La Ragione R, Shelton H. Low pathogenic avian influenza virus infection retards colon microbiota diversification in two different chicken lines. Anim Microbiome 2021; 3:64. [PMID: 34583770 PMCID: PMC8479891 DOI: 10.1186/s42523-021-00128-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A commensal microbiota regulates and is in turn regulated by viruses during host infection which can influence virus infectivity. In this study, analysis of colon microbiota population changes following a low pathogenicity avian influenza virus (AIV) of the H9N2 subtype infection of two different chicken breeds was conducted. METHODS Colon samples were taken from control and infected groups at various timepoints post infection. 16S rRNA sequencing on an Illumina MiSeq platform was performed on the samples and the data mapped to operational taxonomic units of bacterial using a QIIME based pipeline. Microbial community structure was then analysed in each sample by number of observed species and phylogenetic diversity of the population. RESULTS We found reduced microbiota alpha diversity in the acute period of AIV infection (day 2-3) in both Rhode Island Red and VALO chicken lines. From day 4 post infection a gradual increase in diversity of the colon microbiota was observed, but the diversity did not reach the same level as in uninfected chickens by day 10 post infection, suggesting that AIV infection retards the natural accumulation of colon microbiota diversity, which may further influence chicken health following recovery from infection. Beta diversity analysis indicated a bacterial species diversity difference between the chicken lines during and following acute influenza infection but at phylum and bacterial order level the colon microbiota dysbiosis was similar in the two different chicken breeds. CONCLUSION Our data suggest that H9N2 influenza A virus impacts the chicken colon microbiota in a predictable way that could be targeted via intervention to protect or mitigate disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joy Leng
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Disease, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Mohammad Khalid Zakaria
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, UK
- University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, UK
| | - Dagmara Bialy
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, UK
| | - Roberto La Ragione
- Department of Pathology and Infectious Disease, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
| | - Holly Shelton
- The Pirbright Institute, Pirbright, Woking, Surrey, UK.
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4
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Wilden JJ, Hrincius ER, Niemann S, Boergeling Y, Löffler B, Ludwig S, Ehrhardt C. Impact of Staphylococcus aureus Small Colony Variants on Human Lung Epithelial Cells with Subsequent Influenza Virus Infection. Microorganisms 2020; 8:E1998. [PMID: 33333815 PMCID: PMC7765246 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8121998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Human beings are exposed to microorganisms every day. Among those, diverse commensals and potential pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) compose a significant part of the respiratory tract microbiota. Remarkably, bacterial colonization is supposed to affect the outcome of viral respiratory tract infections, including those caused by influenza viruses (IV). Since 30% of the world's population is already colonized with S. aureus that can develop metabolically inactive dormant phenotypes and seasonal IV circulate every year, super-infections are likely to occur. Although IV and S. aureus super-infections are widely described in the literature, the interactions of these pathogens with each other and the host cell are only scarcely understood. Especially, the effect of quasi-dormant bacterial subpopulations on IV infections is barely investigated. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the impact of S. aureus small colony variants on the cell intrinsic immune response during a subsequent IV infection in vitro. In fact, we observed a significant impact on the regulation of pro-inflammatory factors, contributing to a synergistic effect on cell intrinsic innate immune response and induction of harmful cell death. Interestingly, the cytopathic effect, which was observed in presence of both pathogens, was not due to an increased pathogen load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine J. Wilden
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany; (J.J.W.); (E.R.H.); (Y.B.); (S.L.)
| | - Eike R. Hrincius
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany; (J.J.W.); (E.R.H.); (Y.B.); (S.L.)
| | - Silke Niemann
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany;
| | - Yvonne Boergeling
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany; (J.J.W.); (E.R.H.); (Y.B.); (S.L.)
| | - Bettina Löffler
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, 07747 Jena, Germany;
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 2051 “Balance of the Microverse”, FSU Jena, 07743 Jena, Germany
| | - Stephan Ludwig
- Institute of Virology Muenster (IVM), Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany; (J.J.W.); (E.R.H.); (Y.B.); (S.L.)
- Cluster of Excellence EXC 1003 “Cells in Motion”, WWU Muenster, 48149 Muenster, Germany
| | - Christina Ehrhardt
- Section of Experimental Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jena University Hospital, 07745 Jena, Germany
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Blaurock C, Scheibner D, Landmann M, Vallbracht M, Ulrich R, Böttcher-Friebertshäuser E, Mettenleiter TC, Abdelwhab EM. Non-basic amino acids in the hemagglutinin proteolytic cleavage site of a European H9N2 avian influenza virus modulate virulence in turkeys. Sci Rep 2020; 10:21226. [PMID: 33277593 PMCID: PMC7718272 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-78210-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) is the most widespread low pathogenic (LP) AIV in poultry and poses a serious zoonotic risk. Vaccination is used extensively to mitigate the economic impact of the virus. However, mutations were acquired after long-term circulation of H9N2 virus in poultry, particularly in the hemagglutinin (HA) proteolytic cleavage site (CS), a main virulence determinant of AIV. Compared to chickens, little is known about the genetic determinants for adaptation of H9N2 AIV to turkeys. Here, we describe 36 different CS motifs in Eurasian H9N2 viruses identified from 1966 to 2019. The European H9N2 viruses specify unique HACS with particular polymorphism by insertion of non-basic amino acids at position 319. Recombinant viruses carrying single HACS mutations resembling field viruses were constructed (designated G319, A319, N319, S319, D319 and K319). Several viruses replicated to significantly higher titers in turkey cells than in chicken cells. Serine proteases were more efficient than trypsin to support multicycle replication in mammalian cells. Mutations affected cell-to-cell spread and pH-dependent HA fusion activity. In contrast to chickens, mutations in the HACS modulated clinical signs in inoculated and co-housed turkeys. G319 exhibited the lowest virulence, however, it replicated to significantly higher titers in contact-turkeys and in vitro. Interestingly, H9N2 viruses, particularly G319, replicated in brain cells of turkeys and to a lesser extent in mammalian brain cells independent of trypsin. Therefore, the silent circulation of potentially zoonotic H9N2 viruses in poultry should be monitored carefully. These results are important for understanding the adaptation of H9N2 in poultry and replication in mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Blaurock
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - David Scheibner
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Maria Landmann
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Melina Vallbracht
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 33, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Thomas C Mettenleiter
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Elsayed M Abdelwhab
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, 17493, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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Abdelaziz AM, Mohamed MHA, Fayez MM, Al-Marri T, Qasim I, Al-Amer AA. Molecular survey and interaction of common respiratory pathogens in chicken flocks (field perspective). Vet World 2019; 12:1975-1986. [PMID: 32095050 PMCID: PMC6989313 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2019.1975-1986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim: The present study was designed for the detection of the most prevalent respiratory infections in chicken flocks and clarifying their interaction and impact on flock health. Materials and Methods: A total of 359 serum samples were collected from 55 backyard chickens and tested using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits to determine the seroprevalence of Newcastle disease virus (NDV), infectious bronchitis virus (IBV), influenza type A, Mycoplasma gallisepticum (MG), and Mycoplasma synoviae (MS). Molecular prevalence of NDV, IBV, low pathogenic avian influenza virus (LPAIV) H9N2, MG, and MS was carried out on swab, and tissue samples collected from 55 backyard flocks and 11 commercial broiler flocks suffered from respiratory infections using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and reverse transcription-PCR. Results: Seroprevalence of NDV, IBV, Influenza type A virus, MG, and MS in chicken backyard flocks was 56.4%, 50.9%, 12.7%, 14.5%, and 3.6%, respectively. Specific antibodies against one or more respiratory viruses and mycoplasma were detected in 36.4% of backyard flocks, indicating concurrent viral infections. The molecular survey showed that 90.9% of chicken backyard flocks were infected with common respiratory viruses (NDV, IBV, and LPAIV H9N2) while 81.8% of commercial broiler flocks were infected. The molecular prevalence rate of NDV, IBV, and LPAIV H9N2 was 46.97%, 56.1%, and 19.7% in backyard flocks, respectively. Combined viral and bacterial infection represented 40% and 63.6% of the respiratory infections, resulting in enhanced pathogenicity and increased mortalities of up to 87.5% and 27.8% in backyard and commercial flocks, respectively. Mixed infection of IBV, LPAIV H9N2, and/or Escherichia coli is the most prevalent mixed infection in broiler flocks, inducing severe clinical outcomes. Avian pathogenic E. coli was, respectively, isolated from 40% of backyard flocks and 81.82% of broiler flocks. Staphylococcus aureus was isolated from three backyard chicken flocks mixed with other respiratory pathogens with elevated mortality. Mixed infection of E. coli and MG reported in 9.1% of broiler flock. MG was detected in 14.5% of backyard flocks and 9.1% of broiler flocks while MS was detected only in 3.6% of backyard chickens mixed with E. coli, and other viruses. Conclusion: Our results confirm that mixed infections are more commonly prevalent and associated with dramatic exacerbation in clinical outcomes than a single infection. Bidirectional synergistic interaction between these concurrently interacted respiratory pathogens explains the severe clinical impact and high mortality rate. The high prevalence of IBV (either as a single or combined infection) with LPAIV H9N2 and/or E. coli, in spite of intensive use of commercial vaccines, increases the need for revising vaccination programs and the application of standard biosecurity measures. Backyard chickens impose a great risk and threaten commercial flocks due to the high prevalence of viral respiratory pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adel M Abdelaziz
- Veterinary Educational Hospital, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt.,Department of Avian Diseases, Al Ahsa Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mahmoud H A Mohamed
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia.,Department of Avian and Rabbit Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M Fayez
- Al Ahsa Veterinary Diagnostic Lab, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Saudi Arabia.,Serum and Vaccine Research Institute, Abbassia, Egypt
| | - Theeb Al-Marri
- Al Ahsa Veterinary Diagnostic Lab, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ibrahim Qasim
- Department of Animal Resources, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdul Aziz Al-Amer
- Al Ahsa Veterinary Diagnostic Lab, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Saudi Arabia
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7
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Rowe HM, Rosch JW. Close Encounters of the Viral Kind: Cross-Kingdom Synergies at the Host-Pathogen Interface. Bioessays 2019; 41:e1900128. [PMID: 31693223 PMCID: PMC7050635 DOI: 10.1002/bies.201900128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The synergies between viral and bacterial infections are well established. Most studies have been focused on the indirect mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, including immune modulation and alterations to the mucosal structures that promote pathogen outgrowth. A growing body of evidence implicates direct binding of virus to bacterial surfaces being an additional mechanism of synergy at the host-pathogen interface. These cross-kingdom interactions enhance bacterial and viral adhesion and can alter tissue tropism. These bacterial-viral complexes play unique roles in pathogenesis and can alter virulence potential. The bacterial-viral complexes may also play important roles in pathogen transmission. Additionally, the complexes are recognized by the host immune system in a distinct manner, thus presenting novel routes for vaccine development. These synergies are active for multiple species in both the respiratory and gastrointestinal tract, indicating that direct interactions between bacteria and virus to modulate host interactions are used by a diverse array of species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah M Rowe
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
| | - Jason W Rosch
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, 38105, USA
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8
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Ismail ZM, El-Deeb AH, El-Safty MM, Hussein HA. Enhanced pathogenicity of low-pathogenic H9N2 avian influenza virus after vaccination with infectious bronchitis live attenuated vaccine. Vet World 2018; 11:977-985. [PMID: 30147269 PMCID: PMC6097558 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2018.977-985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim In the present study, two experiments were carried out for studying the pathogenicity of H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) in broiler chickens after vaccination with different live respiratory viral vaccines. Materials and Methods One-day-old specific pathogen-free (SPF) chicks were divided into four groups in each experiment. In experiment 1, Groups 1 and 2 were inoculated with H9N2 AIV through nasal route in 1 day old, Groups 1 and 3 were vaccinated with live infectious bronchitis coronavirus (IBV) vaccine in 5 days old, and Group 4 was left as a negative control. In experiment 2, Groups 5 and 6 were inoculated with AIV subtype H9N2 through nasal route in 1 day old, Group 5 was vaccinated with live IBV vaccine and live Newcastle disease virus (NDV) vaccine in 5 and 18 days old, respectively, Groups 6 and 7 were vaccinated with live NDV vaccine in 18 days old, and Group 8 was left as a negative control. Chicks were kept in isolators for 18 days in the first experiment and 35 days in the second experiment. Tracheal and cloacal swabs were collected from 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, and 15 day's old chicks from all groups in experiment 1 and 21, 23, 25, and 28 days old from all groups in experiment 2. Quantitative real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) was applied on the collected tracheal swabs for detecting RNA copies of H9N2 AIV. Cloacal swabs and the positive rRT-PCR tracheal swabs were inoculated in 10-day-old SPF embryonated chicken eggs (ECE) to confirm rRT-PCR results. Internal organs (kidney, trachea, and spleen) from all chicken groups were collected weekly for histopathological examination to determine severity of the lesions. Serum samples were collected on a weekly basis for the detection of humoral immune response against H9N2, NDV, and IBV from all chicken groups. Results rRT-PCR results with virus titration in ECEs revealed a significant increase in H9N2 AIV titer with extension in the period of viral shedding in Groups 1 and 5. Severe lesion score was observed for Groups 1 and 5. The humoral immune response against H9N2 AIV, NDV, and IBV revealed a significant increase in H9N2 AIV titer in Groups 1 and 5, NDV titer showed a significant increase in Group 7, and IBV titer increased in Groups 1, 3, and 5. Conclusion Results demonstrated the increase in pathogenicity of H9N2 AIV, especially when H9N2-infected chicks vaccinated with live IBV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zainab Mohamed Ismail
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Ayman Hanea El-Deeb
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | | | - Hussein Aly Hussein
- Department of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
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Samy A, Naguib MM. Avian Respiratory Coinfection and Impact on Avian Influenza Pathogenicity in Domestic Poultry: Field and Experimental Findings. Vet Sci 2018; 5:E23. [PMID: 29495276 PMCID: PMC5876583 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci5010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Revised: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The avian respiratory system hosts a wide range of commensal and potential pathogenic bacteria and/or viruses that interact with each other. Such interactions could be either synergistic or antagonistic, which subsequently determines the severity of the disease complex. The intensive rearing methods of poultry are responsible for the marked increase in avian respiratory diseases worldwide. The interaction between avian influenza with other pathogens can guarantee the continuous existence of other avian pathogens, which represents a global concern. A better understanding of the impact of the interaction between avian influenza virus and other avian respiratory pathogens provides a better insight into the respiratory disease complex in poultry and can lead to improved intervention strategies aimed at controlling virus spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Samy
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Dokki, Giza 12618, Egypt.
| | - Mahmoud M Naguib
- Reference Laboratory for Veterinary Quality Control on Poultry Production, Animal Health Research Institute, Dokki, Giza 12618, Egypt.
- Zoonosis Science Centre, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Box 582, 751 21 Uppsala, Sweden.
- Infectious Medicine, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Siemens N, Oehmcke-Hecht S, Mettenleiter TC, Kreikemeyer B, Valentin-Weigand P, Hammerschmidt S. Port d'Entrée for Respiratory Infections - Does the Influenza A Virus Pave the Way for Bacteria? Front Microbiol 2017; 8:2602. [PMID: 29312268 PMCID: PMC5742597 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.02602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial and viral co-infections of the respiratory tract are life-threatening and present a global burden to the global community. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae, and Streptococcus pyogenes are frequent colonizers of the upper respiratory tract. Imbalances through acquisition of seasonal viruses, e.g., Influenza A virus, can lead to bacterial dissemination to the lower respiratory tract, which in turn can result in severe pneumonia. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge about bacterial and viral co-infections of the respiratory tract and focus on potential experimental models suitable for mimicking this disease. Transmission of IAV and pneumonia is mainly modeled by mouse infection. Few studies utilizing ferrets, rats, guinea pigs, rabbits, and non-human primates are also available. The knowledge gained from these studies led to important discoveries and advances in understanding these infectious diseases. Nevertheless, mouse and other infection models have limitations, especially in translation of the discoveries to humans. Here, we suggest the use of human engineered lung tissue, human ex vivo lung tissue, and porcine models to study respiratory co-infections, which might contribute to a greater translation of the results to humans and improve both, animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai Siemens
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
- Center for Infectious Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sonja Oehmcke-Hecht
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Thomas C. Mettenleiter
- Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Bernd Kreikemeyer
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, University Medicine Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Peter Valentin-Weigand
- Center for Infection Medicine, Institute for Microbiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Sven Hammerschmidt
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Infection Biology, Interfaculty Institute for Genetics and Functional Genomics, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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Straus MR, Whittaker GR. A peptide-based approach to evaluate the adaptability of influenza A virus to humans based on its hemagglutinin proteolytic cleavage site. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0174827. [PMID: 28358853 PMCID: PMC5373629 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cleavage activation of the hemagglutinin (HA) protein by host proteases is a crucial step in the infection process of influenza A viruses (IAV). However, IAV exists in eighteen different HA subtypes in nature and their cleavage sites vary considerably. There is uncertainty regarding which specific proteases activate a given HA in the human respiratory tract. Understanding the relationship between different HA subtypes and human-specific proteases will be valuable in assessing the pandemic potential of circulating viruses. Here we utilized fluorogenic peptides mimicking the HA cleavage motif of representative IAV strains causing disease in humans or of zoonotic/pandemic potential and tested them with a range of proteases known to be present in the human respiratory tract. Our results show that peptides from the H1, H2 and H3 subtypes are cleaved efficiently by a wide range of proteases including trypsin, matriptase, human airway tryptase (HAT), kallikrein-related peptidases 5 (KLK5) and 12 (KLK12) and plasmin. Regarding IAVs currently of concern for human adaptation, cleavage site peptides from H10 viruses showed very limited cleavage by respiratory tract proteases. Peptide mimics from H6 viruses showed broader cleavage by respiratory tract proteases, while H5, H7 and H9 subtypes showed variable cleavage; particularly matriptase appeared to be a key protease capable of activating IAVs. We also tested HA substrate specificity of Factor Xa, a protease required for HA cleavage in chicken embryos and relevant for influenza virus production in eggs. Overall our data provide novel tool allowing the assessment of human adaptation of IAV HA subtypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco R. Straus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- New York Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
| | - Gary R. Whittaker
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- New York Center of Excellence for Influenza Research and Surveillance, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, New York, United States of America
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Yang Y, Tang H. Aberrant coagulation causes a hyper-inflammatory response in severe influenza pneumonia. Cell Mol Immunol 2016; 13:432-42. [PMID: 27041635 PMCID: PMC4947825 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2016.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) infects the respiratory tract in humans and causes significant morbidity and mortality worldwide each year. Aggressive inflammation, known as a cytokine storm, is thought to cause most of the damage in the lungs during IAV infection. Dysfunctional coagulation is a common complication in pathogenic influenza, manifested by lung endothelial activation, vascular leak, disseminated intravascular coagulation and pulmonary microembolism. Importantly, emerging evidence shows that an uncontrolled coagulation system, including both the cellular (endothelial cells and platelets) and protein (coagulation factors, anticoagulants and fibrinolysis proteases) components, contributes to the pathogenesis of influenza by augmenting viral replication and immune pathogenesis. In this review, we focus on the underlying mechanisms of the dysfunctional coagulatory response in the pathogenesis of IAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Yang
- Division of Viral Pathology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China
| | - Hong Tang
- Division of Viral Pathology, Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430071, China.,Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 320 Yue-yang Road, Shanghai 200031, China
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