1
|
Calado M, Ferreira R, Pires D, Santos-Costa Q, Anes E, Brites D, Azevedo-Pereira JM. Unravelling the triad of neuroinvasion, neurodissemination, and neuroinflammation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in the central nervous system. Rev Med Virol 2024; 34:e2534. [PMID: 38588024 DOI: 10.1002/rmv.2534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Since the identification of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in 1983, many improvements have been made to control viral replication in the peripheral blood and to treat opportunistic infections. This has increased life expectancy but also the incidence of age-related central nervous system (CNS) disorders and HIV-associated neurodegeneration/neurocognitive impairment and depression collectively referred to as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND). HAND encompasses a spectrum of different clinical presentations ranging from milder forms such as asymptomatic neurocognitive impairment or mild neurocognitive disorder to a severe HIV-associated dementia (HAD). Although control of viral replication and suppression of plasma viral load with combination antiretroviral therapy has reduced the incidence of HAD, it has not reversed milder forms of HAND. The objective of this review, is to describe the mechanisms by which HIV-1 invades and disseminates in the CNS, a crucial event leading to HAND. The review will present the evidence that underlies the relationship between HIV infection and HAND. Additionally, recent findings explaining the role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of HAND will be discussed, along with prospects for treatment and control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marta Calado
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita Ferreira
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - David Pires
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research in Health, Católica Medical School, Universidade Católica Portuguesa, Estrada Octávio Pato, Rio de Mouro, Portugal
| | - Quirina Santos-Costa
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Elsa Anes
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Dora Brites
- Neuroinflammation, Signaling and Neuroregeneration Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - José Miguel Azevedo-Pereira
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Anes E, Azevedo-Pereira JM, Pires D. Cathepsins and Their Endogenous Inhibitors in Host Defense During Mycobacterium tuberculosis and HIV Infection. Front Immunol 2021; 12:726984. [PMID: 34421929 PMCID: PMC8371317 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.726984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The moment a very old bacterial pathogen met a young virus from the 80's defined the beginning of a tragic syndemic for humanity. Such is the case for the causative agent of tuberculosis and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Syndemic is by definition a convergence of more than one disease resulting in magnification of their burden. Both pathogens work synergistically contributing to speed up the replication of each other. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and HIV infections are in the 21st century among the leaders of morbidity and mortality of humankind. There is an urgent need for development of new approaches for prevention, better diagnosis, and new therapies for both infections. Moreover, these approaches should consider Mtb and HIV as a co-infection, rather than just as separate problems, to prevent further aggravation of the HIV-TB syndemic. Both pathogens manipulate the host immune responses to establish chronic infections in intracellular niches of their host cells. This includes manipulation of host relevant antimicrobial proteases such as cathepsins or their endogenous inhibitors. Here we discuss recent understanding on how Mtb and HIV interact with cathepsins and their inhibitors in their multifactorial functions during the pathogenesis of both infections. Particularly we will address the role on pathogen transmission, during establishment of intracellular chronic niches and in granuloma clinical outcome and tuberculosis diagnosis. This area of research will open new avenues for the design of innovative therapies and diagnostic interventions so urgently needed to fight this threat to humanity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elsa Anes
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - José Miguel Azevedo-Pereira
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - David Pires
- Host-Pathogen Interactions Unit, Research Institute for Medicines, iMed-ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Santos-Costa Q, Lopes MM, Calado M, Azevedo-Pereira JM. HIV-2 interaction with cell coreceptors: amino acids within the V1/V2 region of viral envelope are determinant for CCR8, CCR5 and CXCR4 usage. Retrovirology 2014; 11:99. [PMID: 25421818 PMCID: PMC4251929 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-014-0099-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human immunodeficiency virus 1 and 2 (HIV-1 and HIV-2) use cellular receptors in distinct ways. Besides a more promiscuous usage of coreceptors by HIV-2 and a more frequent detection of CD4-independent HIV-2 isolates, we have previously identified two HIV-2 isolates (HIV-2MIC97 and HIV-2MJC97) that do not use the two major HIV coreceptors: CCR5 and CXCR4. All these features suggest that in HIV-2 the Env glycoprotein subunits may have a different structural organization enabling distinct - although probably less efficient - interactions with cellular receptors. RESULTS By infectivity assays using GHOST cell line expressing CD4 and CCR8 and blocking experiments using CCR8-specific ligand, I-309, we show that efficient replication of HIV-2MIC97 and HIV-2MJC97 requires the presence of CCR8 at plasma cell membrane. Additionally, we disclosed the determinants of chemokine receptor usage at the molecular level, and deciphered the amino acids involved in the usage of CCR8 (R8 phenotype) and in the switch from CCR8 to CCR5 or to CCR5/CXCR4 usage (R5 or R5X4 phenotype). The data obtained from site-directed mutagenesis clearly indicates that the main genetic determinants of coreceptor tropism are located within the V1/V2 region of Env surface glycoprotein of these two viruses. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that a viral population able to use CCR8 and unable to infect CCR5 or CXCR4-positive cells, may exist in some HIV-2 infected individuals during an undefined time period, in the course of the asymptomatic stage of infection. This suggests that in vivo alternate molecules might contribute to HIV infection of natural target cells, at least under certain circumstances. Furthermore we provide direct and unequivocal evidence that the usage of CCR8 and the switch from R8 to R5 or R5X4 phenotype is determined by amino acids located in the base and tip of V1 and V2 loops of HIV-2 Env surface glycoprotein.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Quirina Santos-Costa
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Unit, Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Instituto de Medicina Molecular (IMM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Centro de Patogénese Molecular, Unidade dos Retrovírus e Infecções Associadas (CPM-URIA), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Maria Manuel Lopes
- Centro de Patogénese Molecular, Unidade dos Retrovírus e Infecções Associadas (CPM-URIA), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Marta Calado
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Unit, Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Instituto de Medicina Molecular (IMM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Centro de Patogénese Molecular, Unidade dos Retrovírus e Infecções Associadas (CPM-URIA), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - José Miguel Azevedo-Pereira
- Host-Pathogen Interaction Unit, Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Instituto de Medicina Molecular (IMM), Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Centro de Patogénese Molecular, Unidade dos Retrovírus e Infecções Associadas (CPM-URIA), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Espirito-Santo M, Santos-Costa Q, Calado M, Dorr P, Azevedo-Pereira JM. Susceptibility of HIV type 2 primary isolates to CCR5 and CXCR4 monoclonal antibodies, ligands, and small molecule inhibitors. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2012; 28:478-85. [PMID: 21902586 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2011.0124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) entry into susceptible cells involves the interaction between viral envelope glycoproteins with CD4 and a chemokine receptor (coreceptor), namely CCR5 and CXCR4. This interaction has been studied to enable the discovery of a new class of antiretroviral drugs that targets the envelope glycoprotein-coreceptor interaction. However, very few data exist regarding HIV-2 susceptibility to these coreceptor inhibitors. With this work we aimed to identify this susceptibility in order to assess the potential use of these molecules to treat HIV-2-infected patients and to further understand the molecular basis of HIV-2 envelope glycoprotein interactions with CCR5 and CXCR4. We found that CCR5-using HIV-2 isolates are readily inhibited by maraviroc, TAK-779, and PF-227153, while monoclonal antibody 2D7 shows only residual or no inhibitory effects. The anti-HIV-2 activity of CXCR4-targeted molecules reveals that SDF-1α/CXCL12 inhibited all HIV-2 tested except one, while mAb 12G5 inhibited the replication of only two isolates, showing residual inhibitory effects with all the other CXCR4-using viruses. A major conclusion from our results is that infection by HIV-2 primary isolates is readily blocked in vitro by maraviroc, at concentrations similar to those required for HIV-1. The susceptibility to maraviroc was independent of CD4(+) T cell counts or clinical stage of the patient from which the virus was obtained. These findings indicate that maraviroc could constitute a reliable therapeutic alternative for HIV-2-infected patients, as long as they are infected with CCR5-using variants, and this may have direct implications for the clinical management of HIV-2-infected patients.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Espirito-Santo
- Centro de Patogénese Molecular, Unidade de Retrovírus e Infecções Associadas, Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Santos-Costa Q, Parreira R, Moniz-Pereira J, Azevedo-Pereira JM. Molecular characterization of the env gene of two CCR5/CXCR4-independent human immunodeficiency 2 primary isolates. J Med Virol 2009; 81:1869-81. [PMID: 19774680 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus 2 (HIV-2) infection is characterized by a slower disease progression and lower transmission rates. The molecular features that could be assigned as directly involved in this in vivo phenotype remain essentially unknown, and the importance of HIV-2 as a model to understand pathogenicity of HIV infection has been frequently underestimated. The early events of the HIV replication cycle involve the interaction between viral envelope glycoproteins and cellular receptors: the CD4 molecule and a chemokine receptor, usually CCR5 or CXCR4. Despite the importance of these two chemokine receptors in human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) entry into cells, we have previously shown that in some HIV-2 asymptomatic individuals, a viral population exists that is unable to use both CCR5 and CXCR4. The goal of the present study was to investigate whether possible regions in the env gene of these viruses might account for this phenotype. From the molecular characterization of these env genes we could not detect any correlation between V3 loop sequence and viral phenotype. In contrast, it reveals the existence of remarkable differences in the V1/V2 and C5 regions of the surface glycoprotein, including the loss of a putative glycosilation site. Moreover, in the transmembrane glycoprotein some unique sequence signatures could be detected in the central ectodomain and second heptad repeat (HR2). Some of the mutations affect well-conserved residues, and may affect the conformation and/or the dynamics of envelope glycoproteins complex, including the SU-TM association and the modulation of viral entry function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Quirina Santos-Costa
- Centro de Patogénese Molecular - Unidade dos Retrovirus e Infecções Associadas, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa 1649-003, Portugal
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Santos-Costa Q, Mansinho K, Moniz-Pereira J, Azevedo-Pereira J. Characterization of HIV-2 chimeric viruses unable to use CCR5 and CXCR4 coreceptors. Virus Res 2009; 142:41-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2009.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2008] [Revised: 01/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/09/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
|
7
|
Bonavia A, Bullock B, Gisselman K, Margulies B, Clements J. A single amino acid change and truncated TM are sufficient for simian immunodeficiency virus to enter cells using CCR5 in a CD4-independent pathway. Virology 2005; 341:12-23. [PMID: 16061266 PMCID: PMC2676328 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2005] [Revised: 06/01/2005] [Accepted: 07/01/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Entry of HIV and SIV into susceptible cells is mediated by CD4 and chemokine receptors, which act as coreceptors. To study cell entry of SIV, we constructed a cell line, xKLuSIV, derived from non-susceptible human K562 cells, that express the firefly luciferase reporter gene under control of a minimal SIV long terminal repeat (LTR). Using these susceptible cells, we studied the entry of a well-characterized molecularly cloned macrophage-tropic SIV. xKLuSIV cells that express rhesus macaque CD4 and/or the rhesus chemokine receptor CCR5 are susceptible to infection with the macrophage-tropic, neurovirulent strain SIV/17E-Fr, but only xKLuSIV cells expressing both CCR5 and CD4 were susceptible to infection by the macrophage-tropic, non-neurovirulent strain SIV/17E-Cl. CCR5-dependent, CD4-independent infection by SIV/17E-Fr was abrogated by pre-incubation of the cells with AOP-RANTES, a ligand for CCR5. In addition to viral entry occurring by a CD4-independent mechanism, neutralization of SIV/17E-Fr with rhesus mAbs from 3 different neutralization groups blocked entry into x KLuSIV cells by both CD4-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Triggering the env glycoprotein of SIV-17 EFr with soluble CD4 had no significant effect in infectivity, but triggering of the same glycoprotein of SIV/17E-Cl allowed it to enter cells in a CD4-independent fashion. Using mutant molecular clones, we studied the determinants for CD4 independence, all of which are confined to the env gene. We report here that truncation of the TM at amino acid 764 and changing a single amino acid (R751G) in the SIV envelope transmembrane protein (TM) conferred the observed CD4-independent phenotype. Our data suggest that the envelope from the neurovirulent SIV/17E-Fr interacts with CCR5 in a CD4-independent manner, and changes in the TM protein of this virus are important components that contribute to neurovirulence in SIV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - J.E. Clements
- Corresponding author. Fax: +1 410 955 9823., E-mail address: (J.E. Clements)
| |
Collapse
|