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Wang XF, Zhang X, Ma W, Li J, Wang X. Host cell restriction factors of equine infectious anemia virus. Virol Sin 2023; 38:485-496. [PMID: 37419416 PMCID: PMC10436108 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2023.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is a member of the lentivirus genus in the Retroviridae family and is considered an animal model for HIV/AIDS research. An attenuated EIAV vaccine, which was successfully developed in the 1970s by classical serial passage techniques, is the first and only lentivirus vaccine that has been widely used to date. Restriction factors are cellular proteins that provide an early line of defense against viral replication and spread by interfering with various critical steps in the viral replication cycle. However, viruses have evolved specific mechanisms to overcome these host barriers through adaptation. The battle between the viruses and restriction factors is actually a natural part of the viral replication process, which has been well studied in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). EIAV has the simplest genome composition of all lentiviruses, making it an intriguing subject for understanding how the virus employs its limited viral proteins to overcome restriction factors. In this review, we summarize the current literature on the interactions between equine restriction factors and EIAV. The features of equine restriction factors and the mechanisms by which the EIAV counteract the restriction suggest that lentiviruses employ diverse strategies to counteract innate immune restrictions. In addition, we present our insights on whether restriction factors induce alterations in the phenotype of the attenuated EIAV vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Xiangmin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Weiwei Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Jiwei Li
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China.
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Identification of a Novel Post-transcriptional Transactivator from the Equine Infectious Anemia Virus. J Virol 2022; 96:e0121022. [PMID: 36448796 PMCID: PMC9769392 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01210-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
All lentiviruses encode a post-transcriptional transactivator, Rev, which mediates the export of viral mRNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and which is required for viral gene expression and viral replication. In the current study, we demonstrate that equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), an equine lentivirus, encodes a second post-transcriptional transactivator that we designate Grev. Grev is encoded by a novel transcript with a single splicing event that was identified using reverse transcription-PCR (RT-PCR) and RNA-seq in EIAV-infected horse tissues and cells. Grev is about 18 kDa in size, comprises the first 18 amino acids (aa) of Gag protein together with the last 82 aa of Rev, and was detected in EIAV-infected cells. Similar to Rev, Grev is localized to the nucleus, and both are able to mediate the expression of Mat (a recently identified viral protein of unknown function from EIAV), but Rev can mediate the expression of EIAV Gag/Pol, while Grev cannot. We also demonstrate that Grev, similar to Rev, specifically binds to rev-responsive element 2 (RRE-2, located in the first exon of mat mRNAs) to promote nuclear export of mat mRNA via the chromosome region maintenance 1 (CRM1) pathway. However, unlike Rev, whose function depends on its multimerization, we could not detect multimerization of Grev using coimmunoprecipitation (co-IP) or bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays. Together, these data suggest that EIAV encodes two post-transcriptional transactivators, Rev and Grev, with similar, but not identical, functions. IMPORTANCE Nuclear export of viral transcripts is a crucial step for viral gene expression and viral replication in lentiviruses, and this export is regulated by a post-transcriptional transactivator, Rev, that is shared by all lentiviruses. Here, we report that the equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) encodes a novel viral protein, Grev, and demonstrated that Grev, like Rev, mediates the expression of the viral protein Mat by binding to the first exon of mat mRNAs via the chromosome region maintenance 1 (CRM1) pathway. Grev is encoded by a single-spliced transcript containing two exons, whereas Rev is encoded by a multiple-spliced transcript containing four exons. Moreover, Rev is able to mediate EIAV Gag/Pol expression by binding to rev-responsive element (RRE) located within the Env-coding region, while Grev cannot. Therefore, the present study demonstrates that EIAV encodes two post-transcriptional regulators, Grev and Rev, suggesting that post-transcriptional regulation patterns in lentivirus are diverse and complex.
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A Novel, Fully Spliced, Accessory Gene in Equine Lentivirus with Distinct Rev-Responsive Element. J Virol 2022; 96:e0098622. [PMID: 36069548 PMCID: PMC9517694 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00986-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
All lentiviruses encode the accessory protein Rev, whose main biological function is to mediate the nuclear export of unspliced and incompletely spliced viral transcripts by binding to a viral cis-acting element (termed the Rev-responsive element, RRE) within the env-encoding region. Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is a member of the lentivirus genus in the Retroviridae family and is considered an important model for the study of lentivirus pathogenesis. Here, we identified a novel transcript from the EIAV genome that encoded a viral protein, named Mat, with an unknown function. The transcript mat was fully spliced and comprised parts of the coding regions of MA and TM. Interestingly, the expression of Mat depended on Rev and the chromosome region maintenance 1 (CRM1) pathway. Rev could specifically bind to Mat mRNA to promote its nuclear export. We further identified that the first exon of Mat mRNA, which was located within the Gag-encoding region, acted as an unreported RRE. Altogether, we identified a novel fully spliced transcript mat with an unusual RRE, which interacted with Rev for nuclear export through the CRM1 pathway. These findings updated the EIAV genome structure, highlighted the diversification of posttranscriptional regulation patterns in EIAV, and may help to expand the understanding of gene transcription and expression of lentivirus. IMPORTANCE In lentiviruses, the nuclear export of viral transcripts is an important step in controlling viral gene expression. Generally, the unspliced and incompletely spliced transcripts are exported via the CRM1-dependent export pathway in a process mediated by the viral Rev protein by binding to the Rev-responsive element (RRE) located within the Env-coding region. However, the completely spliced transcripts are exported via an endogenous cellular pathway, which was Rev independent. Here, we identified a novel fully spliced transcript from EIAV and demonstrated that it encoded a viral protein, termed Mat. Interestingly, we determined that the expression of Mat depended on Rev and identified that the first exon of Mat mRNA could specifically bind to Rev and be exported to the cytoplasm, which suggested that the first exon of Mat mRNA was a second RRE of EIAV. These findings provided important insights into the Rev-dependent nuclear export of completely spliced transcripts in lentiviruses.
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Wang Y, Ma G, Wang XF, Na L, Guo X, Zhang J, Liu C, Du C, Qi T, Lin Y, Wang X. Keap1 recognizes EIAV early accessory protein Rev to promote antiviral defense. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1009986. [PMID: 35139135 PMCID: PMC8863222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The Nrf2/Keap1 axis plays a complex role in viral susceptibility, virus-associated inflammation and immune regulation in host cells. However, whether or how the Nrf2/Keap1 axis is involved in the interactions between equine lentiviruses and their hosts remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that the Nrf2/Keap1 axis was activated during EIAV infection. Mechanistically, EIAV-Rev competitively binds to Keap1 and releases Nrf2 from Keap1-mediated repression, leading to the accumulation of Nrf2 in the nucleus and promoting Nrf2 responsive genes transcription. Subsequently, we demonstrated that the Nrf2/Keap1 axis represses EIAV replication via two independent molecular mechanisms: directly increasing antioxidant enzymes to promote effective cellular resistance against EIAV infection, and repression of Rev-mediated RNA transport through direct interaction between Keap1 and Rev. Together, these data suggest that activation of the Nrf2/Keap1 axis mediates a passive defensive response to combat EIAV infection. The Nrf2/Keap1 axis could be a potential target for developing strategies for combating EIAV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Guanqin Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Lei Na
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xing Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Jiaqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Cong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Cheng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Ting Qi
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yuezhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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Ren H, Yin X, Su C, Guo M, Wang XF, Na L, Lin Y, Wang X. Equine lentivirus counteracts SAMHD1 restriction by Rev-mediated degradation of SAMHD1 via the BECN1-dependent lysosomal pathway. Autophagy 2021; 17:2800-2817. [PMID: 33172327 PMCID: PMC8525956 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2020.1846301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The innate immune restriction factor SAMHD1 can inhibit diverse viruses in myeloid cells. Mechanistically, SAMHD1 inhibits lentiviral replication including HIV-1 by depleting the nucleotide pool to interfere with their reverse transcription. Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is an ancient lentivirus that preferentially attacks macrophages. However, the mechanism by which EIAV successfully establishes infection in macrophages with functional SAMHD1 remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that while equine SAMDH1 can limit EIAV replication in equine macrophages at the reverse transcription stage, the antiviral effect is counteracted by the well-known transcriptional regulator Rev, which downregulates equine SAMHD1 through the lysosomal pathway. Remarkably, Rev hijacks BECN1 (beclin 1) and PIK3C3 to mediate SAMHD1 degradation in a canonical macroautophagy/autophagy-independent pathway. Our study illustrates that equine lentiviral Rev possesses important functions in evading cellular innate immunity in addition to its RNA regulatory function, and may provide new insights into the co-evolutionary arms race between SAMHD1 and lentiviruses.Abbreviations:3-MA: 3-methyladenine; AA: amino acid; ACTB: actin beta; AD: activation domain; ATG: autophagy related; Baf A1: bafilomycin A1; BD: binding domain; BECN1: beclin 1; BH3: BCL2-homology-3 domain; BiFC: bimolecular fluorescence complementation; CCD: coiled-coil domain; class III PtdIns3K: class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; CQ: chloroquine; Co-IP: co-immunoprecipitation; dNTPase: dGTP-stimulated deoxynucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase; ECD: evolutionarily conserved domain; EIAV: equine infectious anemia virus; eMDMs: equine monocyte-derived macrophages; GFP: green fluorescent protein; HD: histidine-aspartic; HIV-1: human immunodeficiency virus-1; hpi: hours post infection; hpt: hours post transfection; KO: knockout; LAMP2: lysosomal associated membrane protein 2; LMB: leptomycin B; PMA: phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; ND: unknown non-essential domain; NES: nuclear export signal; NLS: localization signal; NS: statistically non-significant; PIK3C3: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; RBD: RNA binding domain; RT: reverse transcriptase; siRNAs: small interfering RNAs; SAMHD1: SAM and HD domain containing deoxynucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase 1; SIV: simian immunodeficiency virus; VN: C-terminal residues of Venus 174 to 238; VC: N-terminal residues 2 to 173 of Venus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiling Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xin Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Chao Su
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Miaomiao Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Lei Na
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Yuezhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, the Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
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Lin Y, Wang XF, Wang Y, Du C, Ren H, Liu C, Zhu D, Chen J, Na L, Liu D, Yang Z, Wang X. Env diversity-dependent protection of the attenuated equine infectious anaemia virus vaccine. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 9:1309-1320. [PMID: 32525460 PMCID: PMC7473056 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2020.1773323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Lentiviruses harbour high genetic variability for efficient evasion from host immunity.
An attenuated equine infectious anaemia (EIA) vaccine was developed decades ago in China
and presented remarkably robust protection against EIA. The vaccine was recently proven to
have high genomic diversity, particular in env. However, how
and to what extent the high env diversity relates to immune
protection remains unclear. In this study, we compared immune protections and responses of
three groups of horses stimulated by the high-diversity vaccine EIAV_HD, a single
molecular clone of the vaccine EIAV_LD with low env
diversity, as well as a constructed vaccine strain EIAV_MD with moderate env diversity. The disparity of virus-host interactions between
three env diversity-varied groups (5 horses in each group)
was evaluated using clinical manifestation, pathological scores, and env-specific antibody. We found the highest titres of env antibodies (Abs) or neutralizing Abs (nAbs) in the EIAV_HD group, followed
by the EIAV_MD group, and the lowest titres in the EIAV_LD group (P<0.05). The occurrence of disease/death was different between EIAV_HD
group (1/0), EIAV_MD (2/2), and EIAV_LD group (4/2). A similar env diversity-related linear relationship was observed in the clinical
manifestations and pathological changes. This diversity-dependent disparity in changes
between the three groups was more distinct after immunosuppression, suggesting that
env diversity plays an important role in protection under
low host immunocompetence. In summary, inoculation with vaccines with higher genetic
diversity could present broader and more efficient protection. Our findings strongly
suggest that an abundance of Env antigens are required for efficient protection against
lentiviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuezhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhong Wang
- Department of Geriatrics and Gerontology, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiling Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Cong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Dantong Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Na
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Diqiu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhibiao Yang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
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Equine Mx1 Restricts Influenza A Virus Replication by Targeting at Distinct Site of its Nucleoprotein. Viruses 2019; 11:v11121114. [PMID: 31810278 PMCID: PMC6950424 DOI: 10.3390/v11121114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Interferon-mediated host factors myxovirus (Mx) proteins are key features in regulating influenza A virus (IAV) infections. Viral polymerases are essential for viral replication. The Mx1 protein has been known to interact with viral nucleoprotein (NP) and PB2, resulting in the influence of polymerase activity and providing interspecies restriction. The equine influenza virus has evolved as an independent lineage to influenza viruses from other species. We estimated the differences in antiviral activities between human MxA (huMxA) and equine Mx1 (eqMx1) against a broad range of IAV strains. We found that huMxA has antiviral potential against IAV strains from non-human species, whereas eqMx1 could only inhibit the polymerase activity of non-equine species. Here, we demonstrated that NP is the main target of eqMx1. Subsequently, we found adaptive mutations in the NP of strains A/equine/Jilin/1/1989 (H3N8JL89) and A/chicken/Zhejiang/DTID-ZJU01/2013 (H7N9ZJ13) that confer eqMx1 resistance and sensitivity respectively. A substantial reduction in Mx1 resistance was observed for the two mutations G34S and H52N in H3N8JL89 NP. Thus, eqMx1 is an important dynamic force in IAV nucleoprotein evolution. We, therefore, suggest that the amino acids responsible for Mx1 resistance should be regarded as a robust indicator for the pandemic potential of lately evolving IAVs.
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Attenuation of Equine Lentivirus Alters Mitochondrial Protein Expression Profile from Inflammation to Apoptosis. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00653-19. [PMID: 31391270 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00653-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is an equine lentivirus similar to HIV-1, targets host immune cells, and causes a life-long infection in horses. The Chinese live EIAV vaccine is attenuated from long-term passaging of a highly virulent strain in vitro The parent pathogenic strain (EIAVDLV34) induces a host inflammatory storm to cause severe pathological injury of animals. However, the vaccine strain (EIAVDLV121) induces a high level of apoptosis to eliminate infected cells. To investigate how these processes are regulated, we performed a comparative proteomics analysis and functional study in equine monocyte-derived macrophages (eMDMs) and found that the divergent mitochondrial protein expression profiles caused by EIAV strains with different virulence led to disparate mitochondrial function, morphology, and metabolism. This in turn promoted the distinct transformation of macrophage inflammatory polarization and intrinsic apoptosis. In EIAVDLV34-infected cells, a high level of glycolysis and increased mitochondrial fragmentation were induced, resulting in the M1-polarized proinflammatory-type transformation of macrophages and the subsequent production of a strong inflammatory response. Following infection with EIAVDLV121, the infected cells were transformed into M2-polarized anti-inflammatory macrophages by inhibition of glycolysis. In this case, a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential and impairment of the electron transport chain led to increased levels of apoptosis and reactive oxygen species. These results correlated with viral pathogenicity loss and may help provide an understanding of the key mechanism of lentiviral attenuation.IMPORTANCE Following viral infection, the working pattern and function of the cell can be transformed through the impact on mitochondria. It still unknown how the mitochondrial response changes in cells infected with viruses in the process of virulence attenuation. EIAVDLV121 is the only effective lentiviral vaccine for large-scale use in the world. EIAVDLV34 is the parent pathogenic strain. Unlike EIAVDLV34-induced inflammation storms, EIAVDLV121 can induce high levels of apoptosis. For the first time, we found that, after the mitochondrial protein expression profile is altered, EIAVDLV34-infected cells are transformed into M1-polarized-type macrophages and cause inflammatory injury and that the intrinsic apoptosis pathway is activated in EIAVDLV121-infected cells. These studies shed light on how the mitochondrial protein expression profile changes between cells infected by pathogenic lentivirus strains and cells infected by attenuated lentivirus strains to drive different cellular responses, especially from inflammation to apoptosis.
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Schnabel CL, Babasyan S, Freer H, Wagner B. CXCL10 production in equine monocytes is stimulated by interferon-gamma. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2019; 207:25-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2018.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Revised: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Equine Myxovirus Resistance Protein 2 Restricts Lentiviral Replication by Blocking Nuclear Uptake of Capsid Protein. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00499-18. [PMID: 29743377 PMCID: PMC6146692 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00499-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous research has shown that the antiviral ability of Mx2s is confined to primates, particularly humans. EIAV has been shown to be insensitive to restriction by human MxB. Here, we describe the function of equine Mx2. This protein plays an important role in the suppression of EIAV, HIV-1, and SIVs. The antiviral activity of eqMx2 depends on its subcellular location as well as its capsid binding capacity. Our results showed that following viral infection, eqMx2 changes its original cytoplasmic location and accumulates at the nuclear envelope, where it binds to the viral capsid and blocks the nuclear entry of reverse-transcribed proviral DNAs. In contrast, huMxB does not bind to the EIAV capsid and shows no EIAV restriction effect. These studies expand our understanding of the function of the equine Mx2 protein. Human myxovirus resistance protein 2 (huMxB) has been shown to be a determinant type I interferon (IFN)-induced host factor involved in the inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) as well as many other primate lentiviruses. This blocking occurs after the reverse transcription of viral RNA and ahead of integration into the host DNA, which is closely connected to the ability of the protein to bind the viral capsid. To date, Mx2s derived from nonprimate animals have shown no capacity for HIV-1 suppression. In this study, we examined the restrictive effect of equine Mx2 (eqMx2) on both equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) and HIV-1 and investigated possible mechanisms for its specific function. We demonstrated that IFN-α/β upregulates the expression of eqMx2 in equine monocyte-derived macrophages (eMDMs). The overexpression of eqMx2 significantly suppresses the replication of EIAV, HIV-1, and simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) but not that of murine leukemia virus (MLV). The knockdown of eqMx2 transcription weakens the inhibition of EIAV replication by type I interferon. Interestingly, data from immunofluorescence assays suggest that the subcellular localization of eqMx2 changes following virus infection, from being dispersed in the cytoplasm to being accumulated at the nuclear envelope. Furthermore, eqMx2 blocks the nuclear uptake of the proviral genome by binding to the viral capsid. The N-terminally truncated mutant of eqMx2 lost the ability to bind the viral capsid as well as the restriction effect for lentiviruses. These results improve our understanding of the Mx2 protein in nonprimate animals. IMPORTANCE Previous research has shown that the antiviral ability of Mx2s is confined to primates, particularly humans. EIAV has been shown to be insensitive to restriction by human MxB. Here, we describe the function of equine Mx2. This protein plays an important role in the suppression of EIAV, HIV-1, and SIVs. The antiviral activity of eqMx2 depends on its subcellular location as well as its capsid binding capacity. Our results showed that following viral infection, eqMx2 changes its original cytoplasmic location and accumulates at the nuclear envelope, where it binds to the viral capsid and blocks the nuclear entry of reverse-transcribed proviral DNAs. In contrast, huMxB does not bind to the EIAV capsid and shows no EIAV restriction effect. These studies expand our understanding of the function of the equine Mx2 protein.
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Liu Q, Wang XF, Du C, Lin YZ, Ma J, Wang YH, Zhou JH, Wang X. The integration of a macrophage-adapted live vaccine strain of equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) in the horse genome. J Gen Virol 2017; 98:2596-2606. [PMID: 28884679 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Integration is an important feature of retroviruses and retrovirus-based therapeutic transfection vectors. The non-primate lentivirus equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) primarily targets macrophages/monocytes in vivo. Investigation of the integration features of EIAVDLV121 strains, which are adapted to donkey monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), is of great interest. In this study, we analysed the integration features of EIAVDLV121 in equine MDMs during in vitro infection. Our previously published integration sites (IS) for EIAVFDDV13 in fetal equine dermal (FED) cells were also analysed in parallel as references. Sequencing of the host genomic regions flanking the viral IS showed that reference sequence (RefSeq) genes were preferentially targeted for integration by EIAVDLV121. Introns, AT-rich regions, long interspersed nuclear elements (LINEs) and DNA transposons were also predominantly biased toward viral insertion, which is consistent with EIAVFDDV13 integration into the horse genome in FED cells. In addition, the most significantly enriched Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways, specifically gag junctions for EIAVDLV121 and tight junctions for EIAVFDDV13, are regulators of metabolic function, which is consistent with the common bioprocesses, specifically cell cycle and chromosome/DNA organization, identified by gene ontology (GO) analysis. Our results demonstrate that EIAV integration occurs in regions that harbour structural and topological features of local chromatin in both macrophages and fibroblasts. Our data on EIAV will facilitate further understanding of lentivirus infection and the development of safer and more effective gene therapy vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
| | - Cheng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
| | - Yue-Zhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
| | - Jian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
| | - Yu-Hong Wang
- Department of Geriatrics, The First Affiliated Clinical College of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, PR China
| | - Jian-Hua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, PR China
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Wang HN, Rao D, Fu XQ, Hu MM, Dong JG. Equine infectious anemia virus in China. Oncotarget 2017; 9:1356-1364. [PMID: 29416700 PMCID: PMC5787444 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.20381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia is an equine disease caused by equine infectious anemia virus, which was first reported in 1840. Equine infectious anemia virus research in China started in the 1960s, focusing on etiology, pathology, diagnosis, and immunology. Notably, in 1978 an attenuated vaccine was successfully developed for equine infectious anemia virus, effectively preventing equine infectious anemia virus in China. This article will review equine infectious anemia virus in China, including past and recent research, and commemorate scientists who have made great contributions to equine infectious anemia virus prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Nan Wang
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Animal Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Dan Rao
- School of Animal Husbandry and Medical Engineering, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, China.,Guangdong Key Laboratory of Laboratory Animals, Guangdong Laboratory Animals Monitoring Institute, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xian-Qiu Fu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China
| | - Ming-Ming Hu
- Shanxi Provincial Animal Disease Control Center, Taiyuan, China
| | - Jian-Guo Dong
- School of Animal Husbandry and Medical Engineering, Xinyang Agriculture and Forestry University, Xinyang, China
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Tang YD, Zhang X, Na L, Wang XF, Fu LH, Zhu CH, Wang X, Zhou JH. Double-stranded-RNA-specific adenosine deaminase 1 (ADAR1) is proposed to contribute to the adaptation of equine infectious anemia virus from horses to donkeys. Arch Virol 2016; 161:2667-72. [PMID: 27383210 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-2951-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is a member of the genus Lentivirus of the family Retroviridae. Horses are the most susceptible equids to EIAV infection and are therefore the primary hosts of this virus. In contrast, infected donkeys do not develop clinically active equine infectious anemia (EIA). This phenomenon is similar to what has been observed with HIV-1, which fails to induce AIDS in non-human primates. Interestingly, Shen et al. developed a donkey-tropic pathogenic virus strain (EIAVDV117, DV117) by serially passaging a horse-tropic pathogenic strain, EIAVLN40 (LN40), in donkeys. LN40, which was generated by passaging a field isolate in horses, displayed enhanced virulence in horses but caused no clinical symptoms in donkeys. Infection with DV117 induced acute EIA in nearly 100 % of donkeys. Genomic analysis of DV117 revealed a significantly higher frequency of A-to-G substitutions when compared to LN40. Furthermore, detailed analysis of dinucleotide editing showed that A-to-G mutations had a preference for 5'TpA and 5'ApA. These results strongly implicated the activity of the adenosine deaminase, ADAR1, in this type of mutation. Further investigation demonstrated that overexpression of donkey ADAR1 increased A-to-G mutations within the genome of EIAV. Together with our previous finding that multiple mutations in multiple genes are generated in DV117 during its adaptation from horses to donkeys, the present study suggests that ADAR1-induced A-to-G mutations occur during virus adaption to related new hosts contributing to the alteration of EIAV host tropism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Dong Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Lei Na
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Li-Hua Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China
| | - Chun-Hui Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China.,Reproductive Medicine Center, Subei People's Hospital of Jiangsu Province (Clinic Medical College of Yang Zhou University), Yangzhou, 225001, China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China.
| | - Jian-Hua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, 150001, China. .,Harbin Pharmaceutical Group Biovaccine Company, Harbin, 150069, China.
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Lin YZ, Sun LK, Zhu DT, Hu Z, Wang XF, Du C, Wang YH, Wang XJ, Zhou JH. Equine schlafen 11 restricts the production of equine infectious anemia virus via a codon usage-dependent mechanism. Virology 2016; 495:112-21. [PMID: 27200480 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Human schlafen11 is a novel restriction factor for HIV-1 based on bias regarding relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU). Here, we report the cloning of equine schlafen11 (eSLFN11) and the characteristics of its role in restricting the production of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), a retrovirus similar to HIV-1. Overexpression of eSLFN11 inhibited EIAV replication, whereas knockdown of endogenous eSLFN11 by siRNA enhanced the release of EIAV from its principal target cell. Notably, although eSLFN11 significantly suppressed expression of viral Gag protein and EIAV release into the culture medium, the levels of intracellular viral early gene proteins Tat and Rev and viral genomic RNA were unaffected. Coincidently, similar altered patterns of codon usage bias were observed for both the early and late genes of EIAV. Therefore, our data suggest that eSLFN11 restricts EIAV production by impairing viral mRNA translation via a mechanism that is similar to that employed by hSLFN11 for HIV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Zhi Lin
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
| | - Liu-Ke Sun
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
| | - Dan-Tong Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China; College of Wildlife Resources, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China.
| | - Zhe Hu
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
| | - Cheng Du
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
| | - Yu-Hong Wang
- Department of Geriatrics And Gerontology, First Affiliated Hospital of Harbin Medical University, Harbin, China.
| | - Xiao-Jun Wang
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
| | - Jian-Hua Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China.
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Liu Q, Ma J, Wang XF, Xiao F, Li LJ, Zhang JE, Lin YZ, Du C, He XJ, Wang X, Zhou JH. Infection with equine infectious anemia virus vaccine strain EIAVDLV121 causes no visible histopathological lesions in target organs in association with restricted viral replication and unique cytokine response. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2016; 170:30-40. [PMID: 26832985 PMCID: PMC7112881 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2016.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2015] [Revised: 11/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The live equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) vaccine strain EIAVDLV121 was developed by in vitro attenuation of a virulent strain, EIAVLN40, in the 1970s, and it has been demonstrated to induce protective immunity under laboratory and natural EIAV infection conditions. The detailed biological features of this attenuated virus remain to be further investigated. Experimental inoculation with EIAVDLV121 did not result in clinical symptoms even with immunosuppressive treatment in our previous studies. Here, we further investigated whether the replication of the vaccine strain EIAVDLV121 in experimentally infected horses causes histopathological lesions to develop in the targeted organs. Both the lungs and the spleen have been demonstrated to support EIAV replication. By evaluating the gross macroscopic and histological changes, we found that EIAVDLV121 did not cause detectable histopathological lesions and that it replicated several hundred times more slowly than its parental virulent strain, EIAVLN40, in tissues. Immunochemical assays of these tissues indicated that the primary target cells of EIAVDLV121 were monocytes/macrophages, but that EIAVLN40 also infected alveolar epithelial cells and vascular endothelial cells. In addition, both of these viral strains promoted the up- and down-regulation of the expression of various cytokines and chemokines, implicating the potential involvement of these cellular factors in the pathological outcomes of EIAV infection and host immune responses. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the EIAV vaccine strain does not cause obvious histopathological lesions or clinical symptoms and that it induces a unique cytokine response profile. These features are considered essential for EIAVDLV121 to function as an effective live vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Jian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Fei Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Li-Jia Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Jiao-Er Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Yue-Zhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Cheng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China
| | - Xi-Jun He
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China.
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China.
| | - Jian-Hua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150001, China; Harbin Pharmaceutical Group Biovaccine Company, Harbin 150069, China.
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16
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Du C, Liu HF, Lin YZ, Wang XF, Ma J, Li YJ, Wang X, Zhou JH. Proteomic alteration of equine monocyte-derived macrophages infected with equine infectious anemia virus. Proteomics 2015; 15:1843-58. [PMID: 25684102 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2014] [Revised: 01/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2015] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Similar to the well-studied viruses human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) is another member of the Lentivirus genus in the family Retroviridae. Previous studies revealed that interactions between EIAV and the host resulted in viral evolution in pathogenicity and immunogenicity, as well as adaptation to the host. Proteomic analysis has been performed to examine changes in protein expression and/or modification in host cells infected with viruses and has revealed useful information for virus-host interactions. In this study, altered protein expression in equine monocyte-derived macrophages (eMDMs, the principle target cell of EIAV in vivo) infected with the EIAV pathogenic strain EIAV(DLV34) (DLV34) was examined using 2D-LC-MS/MS coupled with the iTRAQ labeling technique. The expression levels of 210 cellular proteins were identified to be significantly upregulated or downregulated by infection with DLV34. Alterations in protein expression were confirmed by examining the mRNA levels of eight selected proteins using quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR, and by verifying the levels of ten selected proteins using parallel reaction monitoring (PRM). Further analysis of GO and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG)-Pathway enrichment demonstrated that these differentially expressed proteins are primarily related to the biological processes of oxidative phosphorylation, protein folding, RNA splicing, and ubiquitylation. Our results can facilitate a better understanding of the host response to EIAV infection and the cellular processes required for EIAV replication and pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng Du
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China.,Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Hai-Fang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Yue-Zhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Jian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Yi-Jing Li
- Department of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China
| | - Jian-Hua Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, P. R. China.,Hayao Pharmaceutical Group Biovaccine Co, Harbin, P. R. China
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Double-stranded RNA-specific adenosine deaminase 1 (ADAR1) promotes EIAV replication and infectivity. Virology 2015; 476:364-371. [PMID: 25589239 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.12.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Adenosine deaminases that act on RNA (ADARs) have been reported to be functional on various viruses. ADAR1 may exhibit antiviral or proviral activity depending on the type of virus. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 is the most well-studied lentivirus with respect to its interaction with ADAR1, and variable results have been reported. In this study, we demonstrated that equine ADAR1 (eADAR1) was a positive regulator of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), another lentivirus of the Retroviridae family. First, eADAR1 significantly promoted EIAV replication, and the enhancement of viral protein expression was associated with the long terminal repeat (LTR) and Rev response element (RRE) regions. Second, the RNA binding domain 1 of eADAR1 was essential only for enhancing LTR-mediated gene expression. Third, in contrast with APOBEC proteins, which have been shown to reduce lentiviral infectivity, eADAR1 increased the EIAV infectivity. This study indicated that eADAR1 was proviral rather than antiviral for EIAV.
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Equine viperin restricts equine infectious anemia virus replication by inhibiting the production and/or release of viral Gag, Env, and receptor via distortion of the endoplasmic reticulum. J Virol 2014; 88:12296-310. [PMID: 25122784 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01379-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Viperin is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-associated multifunctional protein that regulates virus replication and possesses broad antiviral activity. In many cases, viperin interferes with the trafficking and budding of viral structural proteins by distorting the membrane transportation system. The lentivirus equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) has been studied extensively. In this study, we examined the restrictive effect of equine viperin (eViperin) on EIAV replication and investigated the possible molecular basis of this restriction to obtain insights into the effect of this cellular factor on retroviruses. We demonstrated that EIAV infection of primary equine monocyte-derived macrophages (eMDMs) upregulated the expression of eViperin. The overexpression of eViperin significantly inhibited the replication of EIAV in eMDMs, and knockdown of eViperin transcription enhanced the replication of EIAV in eMDMs by approximately 45.8%. Further experiments indicated that eViperin restricts EIAV at multiple steps of viral replication. The overexpression of eViperin inhibited EIAV Gag release. Both the α-helix domain and radical S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) domain were required for this activity. However, the essential motifs in SAM were different from those reported for the inhibition of HIV-1 Gag by human viperin. Furthermore, eViperin disrupted the synthesis of both EIAV Env and receptor, which consequently inhibited viral production and entry, respectively, and this disruption was dependent on the eViperin α-helix domain. Using immunofluorescence assays and electron microscopy, we demonstrated that the α-helix domain is responsible for the distortion of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Finally, EIAV did not exhibit counteracting eViperin at the protein level. IMPORTANCE In previous studies, viperin was indicated as restricting virus replications primarily by the inhibition of virus budding. Here, we show that viperin may have multiple antiviral mechanisms, including the reduction of EIAV Gag budding and Env expression, and these activities are dependent on different viperin domains. We especially demonstrate that the overexpression of viperin inhibits EIAV entry by decreasing the level of virus receptor. Therefore, viperin restriction of viruses is determined largely by the dependence of virus on the cellular membrane transportation system.
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Lin YZ, Yang F, Zhang SQ, Sun LK, Wang XF, Du C, Zhou JH. The soluble form of the EIAV receptor encoded by an alternative splicing variant inhibits EIAV infection of target cells. PLoS One 2013; 8:e79299. [PMID: 24278125 PMCID: PMC3838338 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0079299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Equine lentivirus receptor 1 (ELR1) has been identified as the sole receptor for equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) and is a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily. In addition to the previously described membrane-associated form of ELR1, two other major alternative splicing variant mRNAs were identified in equine monocyte-derived macrophages (eMDMs). One major spliced species (ELR1-IN) contained an insertion of 153 nt, which resulted in a premature stop codon situated 561 nt upstream of the predicted membrane spanning domain. The other major species (ELR1-DE) has a deletion of 109 nt that causes a shift of the open reading frame and generates a stop codon 312 nt downstream. Because ELR1-DE presumably encodes a peptide of a mere 23 residues, only ELR1-IN was further analyzed. The expression of a soluble form of ELR1 (sELR1) by ELR1-IN was confirmed by Western blot and immunofluorescence analyses. Similar to ELR1, the transcription level of ELR1-IN varied among individual horses and at different time points in the same individuals. The ratio of ELR1-IN mRNA species to ELR1 mRNA was approximately 1∶2.5. Pre-incubation of the recombinant sELR1 with EIAV significantly inhibited EIAV infection in equine macrophages, the primary in vivo target cell of the virus. Fetal equine dermal (FED) cells are susceptible to EIAV in vitro, and the replication of EIAV in FED cells transiently transfected with ELR1-IN was markedly reduced when compared with replication in cells transfected with the empty vector. Finally, the expression levels of both forms of the EIAV receptor were significantly regulated by infection with this virus. Taken together, our data indicate that sELR1 acts as a secreted cellular factor that inhibits EIAV infection in host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Zhi Lin
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China
| | - Fei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China
| | - Shu-Qin Zhang
- Institute of Special Wild Economic Animal and Plant Science, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Changchun, China
| | - Liu-Ke Sun
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China
| | - Xue-Feng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China
| | - Cheng Du
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China
| | - Jian-Hua Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Science, Harbin, China
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Cook R, Leroux C, Issel C. Equine infectious anemia and equine infectious anemia virus in 2013: A review. Vet Microbiol 2013; 167:181-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2013] [Revised: 09/16/2013] [Accepted: 09/21/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Ma J, Wang SS, Lin YZ, Liu HF, Wei HM, Du C, Wang XF, Zhou JH. An attenuated EIAV strain and its molecular clone strain differentially induce the expression of Toll-like receptors and type-I interferons in equine monocyte-derived macrophages. Vet Microbiol 2013; 166:263-9. [PMID: 23850441 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/10/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Activations of endosomal TLRs include TLR3, TLR7/8, and TLR9 stimulates the production of cytokines, such as type I interferons (IFNs), and therefore involves in virus-host interactions. In the present study, two equine anemia virus (EIAV) strains EIAVFDDV13 and EIAVFDDV3-8, which showed different induction on protective immunity, were compared regarding their ability to regulate the expression of endosomal TLRs, as well as type I IFNs, after infection of equine monocyte-derived macrophages (eMDMs). Our results showed that EIAVFDDV13 dramatically up-regulated the expression of TLR3 and IFNβ and less robustly up-regulated the expression of TRL9 and IFNα1, whereas EIAVFDDV3-8 induced significantly lower expression of type I IFN mRNA and protein and more strongly down-regulated the expression of TLR7 and TLR8. In addition, no significant differences in cell apoptosis were observed between these two strains. Given that the genomic variation of EIAVFDDV13 is considerably higher than that of molecular clone EIAVFDDV3-8, our results suggest that stronger TLR3 activation and increased INFβ production induced by the multi-species strain are associated with an effective vaccine-elicited protective immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 427, Maduan Street, Nangang District, Harbin 150001, China
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