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Krbečková V, Plachá D. Raw biowaste conversion to high-value compounds for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 263:120134. [PMID: 39389193 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.120134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2024] [Revised: 09/23/2024] [Accepted: 10/08/2024] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
Biowaste valorisation into high-value compounds is one of the main challenges of green chemistry, as chemicals produced from biological sources are identified as key substances in the development of a low-carbon and circular bioeconomy in connection with the transition from fossil to renewable feedstocks. The review summarizes the production of high-value products such as glucose-based chemicals, phenolic compounds and volatile-fatty acids prepared from biomass waste. Biowaste pretreatment methods such as milling, filtration and extraction followed by current non-catalytic methods such as microwave or ultrasound extraction and catalytic methods for the production value-added compounds in the presence of various catalyst types in conventional, nano or enzyme form are listed with a focus on value-added chemicals applied in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The economic feasibility, technical aspects and concept of the biorefinery are briefly mentioned, emphasizing the necessity of life cycle assessment for each bioproduct and technological process. Finally, it provides a future perspective and makes recommendations for potential research strategies, recognizing the importance of utilizing biomass waste for the production of useful compounds as an attractive and environmentally friendly approach whose development should be encouraged. The utilization of biowaste for high-value chemicals production shows high potential, however, there are still many challenges to be resolved throughout the entire production chain, reflecting technological, economic, ecological, sociological and long-term issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Krbečková
- Nanotechnology Centre, CEET, VŠB - Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, 708 00, Ostrava, Poruba, Czech Republic; Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Daniela Plachá
- Nanotechnology Centre, CEET, VŠB - Technical University of Ostrava, 17. listopadu 2172/15, 708 00, Ostrava, Poruba, Czech Republic.
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2
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Hu SL, Cheng H, Xu RY, Huang JS, Zhang PJ, Qin JN. Conversion of xylose into furfural over Cr/Mg hydrotalcite catalysts. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2023.113009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
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3
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Transformation of Corn Stover into Furan Aldehydes by One-Pot Reaction with Acidic Lithium Bromide Solution. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232314901. [PMID: 36499226 PMCID: PMC9738224 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232314901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, the production of furan aldehydes from raw biomass suffers from low furfural yield and high energy consumption. In this study, a recyclable and practical method was explored for the preparation of furfural from corn stover by the one-pot reaction by acidic lithium bromide solution (ALBS) without pretreatment and enzymolysis. In the ALBS reaction, the furan aldehydes were generated by the degradation of lignocellulose; however, the products were unstable and were further dehydrated to form humins. So, dehydration reaction was inhibited in this study, and the high yield of furan aldehydes was obtained, in which 2.94 g/L of furfural and 2.78 g/L of 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (5-HMF) were generated with high solid loading (10 wt%), the presence of commercial catalyst ZSM-5 and co-solvent tetrahydrofuran (THF) at 140 °C for 200 min. Via this method, almost 100% of hemicellulose was transformed to furfural, and 40.71% of cellulose was transformed to 5-HMF, which was based on the theoretical yield of HMF (8.35 g) from glucose (29.30 g) produced from cellulose. After the reaction, the catalyst ZSM-5 was the main component in the solid residue and kept a suitable performance. THF azeotrope was easily separated from the slurry by evaporation. During the removal of THF, lignin was precipitated from the liquid phase and showed lower molecular weight and abundant active groups, which was a potential feedstock for producing valuable aromatics and polymers. Thus, in a one-pot reaction, the ideal yield of furan aldehydes from raw biomass was obtained on a lab scale, and the catalyst, THF, and LiBr were easily recycled, which provided an option to realize the economical production of sustainable furan aldehydes from raw biomass.
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Liang Q, Wang Y, Yang Y, Xu T, Xu Y, Zhao Q, Heo SH, Kim MS, Jeong YH, Yao S, Song X, Choi SE, Si C. Nanocellulose/two dimensional nanomaterials composites for advanced supercapacitor electrodes. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1024453. [PMID: 36267450 PMCID: PMC9578560 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1024453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
With the emerging of the problems of environmental pollution and energy crisis, the development of high-efficiency energy storage technology and green renewable energy is imminent. Supercapacitors have drawn great attention in wearable electronics because of their good performance and portability. Electrodes are the key to fabricate high-performance supercapacitors with good electrochemical properties and flexibility. As a biomass based derived material, nanocellulose has potential application prospects in supercapacitor electrode materials due to its biodegradability, high mechanical strength, strong chemical reactivity, and good mechanical flexibility. In this review, the research progress of nanocellulose/two dimensional nanomaterials composites is summarized for supercapacitors in recent years. First, nanocellulose/MXene composites for supercapacitors are reviewed. Then, nanocellulose/graphene composites for supercapacitors are comprehensively elaborated. Finally, we also introduce the current challenges and development potential of nanocellulose/two dimensional nanomaterials composites in supercapacitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qidi Liang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Yaxuan Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Yanfan Yang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Ting Xu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
- *Correspondence: Ting Xu, ; Xueping Song, ; Sun-Eun Choi, ; Chuanling Si,
| | - Ying Xu
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Qingshuang Zhao
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Su-Hak Heo
- Department of Medicinal Bioscience, Konkuk University (Glocal Campus), Chungju-si, Chungcheongbuk-do, South Korea
| | - Min-Seok Kim
- Department of Forest Biomaterials Engineering, College of Forest & Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Young-Hwan Jeong
- Department of Forest Biomaterials Engineering, College of Forest & Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
| | - Shuangquan Yao
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
| | - Xueping Song
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
- *Correspondence: Ting Xu, ; Xueping Song, ; Sun-Eun Choi, ; Chuanling Si,
| | - Sun-Eun Choi
- Department of Forest Biomaterials Engineering, College of Forest & Environmental Sciences, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, South Korea
- *Correspondence: Ting Xu, ; Xueping Song, ; Sun-Eun Choi, ; Chuanling Si,
| | - Chuanling Si
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning, China
- State Key Laboratory of Tree Genetics and Breeding, Northeast Forestry University, Harbin, China
- *Correspondence: Ting Xu, ; Xueping Song, ; Sun-Eun Choi, ; Chuanling Si,
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Xu H, Li X, Hu W, Yu Z, Zhou H, Zhu Y, Lu L, Si C. Research Progress of Highly Efficient Noble Metal Catalysts for the Oxidation of 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202200352. [PMID: 35575041 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202200352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) is considered to be one of the most pivotal multifunctional biomass platform chemicals. This Review discusses recent advances in catalytic oxidation of HMF towards high-value products. The reaction mechanism of different noble metals and the path of HMF oxidation to high-value products have been deeply investigated in the noble metal catalytic system. The reaction mechanisms of different noble metals and HMF conversion paths were compared in detail. Moreover, the factors affecting the performance of different noble metal catalysts were summarized. Finally, effective strategies were put forward to improve the catalytic performance of noble metal catalysts. The purpose is to provide a valuable reference for the academic research on the preparation of oxidation products from biomass-based HMF and the industrial application of noble metal catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haocheng Xu
- School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, P. R. China
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyun Li
- School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, P. R. China
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Wenxuan Hu
- School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, P. R. China
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Zhihao Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, School of Science, Tibet University, Lhasa, 850000, P. R. China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P. R. China
| | - Huanran Zhou
- School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, P. R. China
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Yameng Zhu
- School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, P. R. China
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Lefu Lu
- School of Agriculture, Shenzhen Campus of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, P. R. China
- School of Agriculture, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, 510275, P. R. China
| | - Chuanling Si
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, P. R. China
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Zhang T, Li W, Xiao H, Jin Y, Wu S. Recent progress in direct production of furfural from lignocellulosic residues and hemicellulose. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 354:127126. [PMID: 35398210 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Furfural is a vital biomass-derived platform molecule, which can be used to synthesize a wide range of value-added chemicals. Furfural and its derivatives are promising alternatives to conventional petroleum chemicals. However, recent industrial production of furfural existed some thorny problems, including low efficiency, energy waste, and environmental pollution. Therefore, tremendous and continuous efforts have been made by researchers to develop novel furfural production processes with high economic viability, production efficiency, and sustainability. This review summarized the merits and shortcomings of disparate catalytic systems for the synthesis of furfural from biomass and biomass pretreatment hydrolysate on the basis of recently published literature. Furthermore, the suggestions for furfural production research were put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingwei Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Wenzhi Li
- Department of Thermal Science and Energy Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China
| | - Huining Xiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB E3B 5A3, Canada
| | - Yongcan Jin
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China.
| | - Shufang Wu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
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7
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Carbon-based solid acid derived from lignin and polyvinyl chloride for conversion of xylose and crop wastes to furfural. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2022.112329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Zhang T, Wei H, Gao J, Chen S, Jin Y, Deng C, Wu S, Xiao H, Li W. Synthesis of sulfonated hierarchical carbons and theirs application on the production of furfural from wheat straw. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2021.112034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Yang T, Chen D, Li W, Zhang H. Efficient conversion of corn stover to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural and furfural using a novel acidic resin catalyst in water-1, 4-dioxane system. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2021.111920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Mini-Review on the Synthesis of Furfural and Levulinic Acid from Lignocellulosic Biomass. Processes (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/pr9071234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient conversion of renewable biomass into value-added chemicals and biofuels is regarded as an alternative route to reduce our high dependence on fossil resources and the associated environmental issues. In this context, biomass-based furfural and levulinic acid (LA) platform chemicals are frequently utilized to synthesize various valuable chemicals and biofuels. In this review, the reaction mechanism and catalytic system developed for the generation of furfural and levulinic acid are summarized and compared. Special efforts are focused on the different catalytic systems for the synthesis of furfural and levulinic acid. The corresponding challenges and outlooks are also observed.
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11
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Improving Biocatalytic Synthesis of Furfuryl Alcohol by Effective Conversion of D-Xylose into Furfural with Tin-Loaded Sulfonated Carbon Nanotube in Cyclopentylmethyl Ether-Water Media. Catal Letters 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10562-021-03570-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Weidener D, Leitner W, Domínguez de María P, Klose H, Grande PM. Lignocellulose Fractionation Using Recyclable Phosphoric Acid: Lignin, Cellulose, and Furfural Production. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:909-916. [PMID: 33244874 PMCID: PMC7898823 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202002383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The conversion of lignocellulose into its building blocks and their further transformation into valuable platform chemicals (e. g., furfural) are key technologies to move towards the use of renewable resources. This paper explored the disentanglement of lignocellulose into hemicellulose-derived sugars, cellulose, and lignin in a biphasic solvent system (water/2-methyltetrahydrofuran) using phosphoric acid as recyclable catalyst. Integrated with the biomass fractionation, in a second step hemicellulose-derived sugars (mainly xylose) were converted to furfural, which was in situ extracted into 2-methyltetrahydrofuran with high selectivity (70 %) and yield (56 wt %). To further increase the economic feasibility of the process, a downstream and recycling strategy enabled recovery of phosphoric acid without loss of process efficiency over four consecutive cycles. This outlines a more efficient and sustainable use of phosphoric acid as catalyst, as its inherent costs can be significantly lowered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis Weidener
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, Plant Sciences Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbHWilhelm-Johnen-Straße52428JülichGermany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry (ITMC)RWTH Aachen UniversityWorringer Weg 152074AachenGermany
- Bioeconomy Science Center (BioSC), c/o Forschungszentrum JülichWilhelm-Johnen-Straße52428JülichGermany
| | - Walter Leitner
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry (ITMC)RWTH Aachen UniversityWorringer Weg 152074AachenGermany
- Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Energy ConversionStiftstraße 34–3645470Mülheim an derRuhrGermany
| | | | - Holger Klose
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, Plant Sciences Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbHWilhelm-Johnen-Straße52428JülichGermany
- Institute for Biology IRWTH Aachen UniversityWorringer Weg 352074AachenGermany
- Bioeconomy Science Center (BioSC), c/o Forschungszentrum JülichWilhelm-Johnen-Straße52428JülichGermany
| | - Philipp M. Grande
- Institute of Bio- and Geosciences, Plant Sciences Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbHWilhelm-Johnen-Straße52428JülichGermany
- Bioeconomy Science Center (BioSC), c/o Forschungszentrum JülichWilhelm-Johnen-Straße52428JülichGermany
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Yu Z, Lu X, Wang X, Xiong J, Li X, Zhang R, Ji N. Metal-Catalyzed Hydrogenation of Biomass-Derived Furfural: Particle Size Effects and Regulation Strategies. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:5185-5198. [PMID: 32738188 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202001467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2020] [Revised: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The hydrogenation of furfural (FUR), a typical bio-based furan derivative, is a critical reaction within the roadmap for upgrading lignocellulosic biomass into high value-added chemicals and liquid fuels, the performance of which is strongly correlated with the catalysts' intrinsic peculiarities. Metal catalysts with tailorable sizes, uniform dispersions and robust sintering resistance are generally recognized as a prerequisite for obtaining better hydrogenation activity, selectivity and stability, which has prompted intensive research into metal particle size effects and their regulation strategies. The roles of metal particle sizes and corresponding dispersions of metal catalysts used for FUR hydrogenation have been clearly recognized to be crucial over the past decade. In this regard, this systematic Minireview aims to provide profound insights into particle size effects in the metal-catalyzed hydrogenation of FUR, as well as conditional and structural approaches to regulating these effects. In addition, from the aspect of catalyst stability, the impacts and improvements of the metal particle sintering issue are analyzed. Moreover, several suggestions are proposed in response to the challenges in regulating particle size effects. Furthermore, the viewpoints presented herein would potentially contribute to the rational development of metal hydrogenation catalysts and further help to boost a more sustainable biomass refining system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Yu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomass/Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P.R. China
| | - Xuebin Lu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomass/Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P.R. China
- Department of Chemistry & Environmental Science, School of Science, Tibet University, Lhasa, 850000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaotong Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomass/Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P.R. China
| | - Jian Xiong
- Department of Chemistry & Environmental Science, School of Science, Tibet University, Lhasa, 850000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaoyun Li
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin, 300457, P.R. China
| | - Rui Zhang
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Tianjin Chengjian University, Tianjin, 300384, P.R. China
| | - Na Ji
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Laboratory of Biomass/Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, P.R. China
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Production of Levulinic Acid from Cellulose and Cellulosic Biomass in Different Catalytic Systems. Catalysts 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/catal10091006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The reasonable and effective use of lignocellulosic biomass is an important way to solve the current energy crisis. Cellulose is abundant in nature and can be hydrolyzed to a variety of important energy substances and platform compounds—for instance, glucose, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), levulinic acid (LA), etc. As a chemical linker between biomass and petroleum processing, LA has become an ideal feedstock for the formation of liquid fuels. At present, some problems such as low yield, high equipment requirements, difficult separation, and serious environmental pollution in the production of LA from cellulose have still not been solved. Thus, a more efficient and green catalytic system of this process for industrial production is highly desired. Herein, we focus on the reaction mechanism, pretreatment, and catalytic systems of LA from cellulose and cellulosic biomass, and a series of existing technologies for producing LA are reviewed. On the other hand, the industrial production of LA is discussed in depth to improve the yield of LA and make the process economical and energy efficient. Additionally, practical suggestions for the enhancement of the stability and efficiency of the catalysts are also proposed. The use of cellulose to produce LA is consistent with the concept of sustainable development, and the dependence on fossil resources will be greatly reduced through the realization of this process route.
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