Understanding the gap between formal and informal e-waste recycling facilities in India

Informal E-waste dismantling activities accelerated the releasing of liquid crystal monomers (LCMs) in Pakistan: Occurrence, distribution, and exposure assessment

Liquid crystal monomers (LCMs) are emerging contaminants characterized by their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity. They have been observed in several environmental matrices associated with electronic waste (e-waste) dismantling activities, particularly in China. However, there is currently no information on the pollution caused by LCMs in other developing countries, such as Pakistan. In this study, we collected soil samples (n = 59) from e-waste dismantling areas with different functions in Pakistan for quantification analysis of 52 target LCMs. Thirty out of 52 LCMs were detected in the soil samples, with the concentrations ranging from 2.14 to 191 ng/g (median: 16.3 ng/g), suggesting widespread contamination by these emerging contaminants. Fluorinated LCMs (median: 10.4 ng/g, range: 1.27-116 ng/g) were frequently detected and their levels were significantly (P < 0.05) higher than those of non-fluorinated LCMs (median: 6.11 ng/g, range: not detected (ND)-76.7 ng/g). The concentrations and profiles of the observed LCMs in the soil samples from the four functional areas varied. The informal dismantling of e-waste poses a potential exposure risk to adults and infants, with median estimated daily intake (EDI, ng/kg bw/day) values of 0.0420 and 0.1013, respectively. Calculation of the hazard quotient (HQ) suggested that some LCMs (e.g., ETFMBC (1.374) and EDFPB (1.257)) may pose potential health risks to occupational workers and their families. Considering the widespread contamination and risks associated with LCMs, we strongly recommend enhancing e-waste management and regulation in Pakistan.

Systematic literature review of heavy metal contamination of the Nigerian environment from e-waste management: Associated health and carcinogenic risk assessment

E-waste -the aftermath of large amount of electrical and electronic equipment ferried into Africa from which Nigeria receives a significant chunk, is composed of components known to be hazardous to health. Composition of series of heavy metals (HMs) in e-waste is traceable to many health conditions including cancer which is hitherto incompletely understood. This study harmonizes primary data on HMs from e-waste in different Nigerian environmental media including the air, soil, surface dust, water and plant. We estimated the possible health implications, single and aggregative soil and water pollution indices both in adult and children categories, carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks secondary to HM exposure and mapped out the possible mechanism of carcinogenesis. Analysis showed that soil, water, surface dust and plant matrices in Nigerian environment are variedly but considerably contaminated with combination of HMs. The significantly high values of the hazard quotient and hazard index of both water and surface dust matrices are indicative of adverse health effect of the non-carcinogenic risk. The highest HQ is generated by Pb and Cr through dermal exposure to soil and surface dust with mean values of 1718.48, 1146.14, 1362.10 and 1794.61 respectively among Nigerian children followed by the oral exposure. This pattern of observation is similar to that obtained for adult category. HI due to Pb and Cr in soil constitutes the highest HI (2.05E+03 and 1.18E+03 respectively) followed by surface dust. However, this study precipitates the observation that children are more at health risk than adults in contaminated environment. Carcinogenic risk also follows the same pattern of expression in the Nigerian environment. We conclude that exposure to e-waste poses significant carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks and the induction of toxicity may be mediated via DNA damage, oxidative stress and inflammatory/immune cells dysfunction in Nigerian environment.

An in-depth analysis and review of management strategies for E-waste in the south Asian region: A way forward towards waste to energy conversion and sustainability

The soaring rise of electronic and electrical waste (E-waste) leads to significant challenges to the South Asian region, urging for incorporating comprehensive assessment and management strategies. The research dives into the intricacies of E-waste and examines how regulatory barriers, public ignorance, and the limited lifespan of electronic devices all contribute to the significant production of E-waste. This study emphasizes the vital need for ongoing and appropriate management practices by bringing attention to the short lifespan of electronic devices and the resulting generation of E-waste. This work also addresses the increased risks that people who live close to informal recycling sites for electronic waste face, as well as the dangerous substances that are found in them and how they harm the environment and human health. Furthermore, in order to promote circular economies and increase productivity, the study assesses management practices in both developed and developing nations, placing special emphasis on component reuse and recycling. Along with addressing the grave consequences of the illicit E-waste trade on the environment, particularly in developing nations, this review attempts to enlighten stakeholders and policymakers about the vital need for coordinated efforts to address the issues related to E-waste in the South Asian region by offering insights into E-waste assessment and management techniques.

Driving sustainable circular economy in electronics: A comprehensive review on environmental life cycle assessment of e-waste recycling

E-waste, encompassing discarded materials from outdated electronic equipment, often ends up intermixed with municipal solid waste, leading to improper disposal through burial and incineration. This improper handling releases hazardous substances into water, soil, and air, posing significant risks to ecosystems and human health, ultimately entering the food chain and water supply. Formal e-waste recycling, guided by circular economy models and zero-discharge principles, offers potential solutions to this critical challenge. However, implementing a circular economy for e-waste management due to chemical and energy consumption may cause environmental impacts. Consequently, advanced sustainability assessment tools, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), have been applied to investigate e-waste management strategies. While LCA is a standardized methodology, researchers have employed various routes for environmental assessment of different e-waste management methods. However, to the authors' knowledge, there lacks a comprehensive study focusing on LCA studies to discern the opportunities and limitations of this method in formal e-waste management strategies. Hence, this review aims to survey the existing literature on the LCA of e-waste management under a circular economy, shedding light on the current state of research, identifying research gaps, and proposing future research directions. It first explains various methods of managing e-waste in the circular economy. This review then evaluates and scrutinizes the LCA approach in implementing the circular bioeconomy for e-waste management. Finally, it proposes frameworks and procedures to enhance the applicability of the LCA method to future e-waste management research. The literature on the LCA of e-waste management reveals a wide variation in implementing LCA in formal e-waste management, resulting in diverse results and findings in this field. This paper underscores that LCA can pinpoint the environmental hotspots for various pathways of formal e-waste recycling, particularly focusing on metals. It can help address these concerns and achieve greater sustainability in e-waste recycling, especially in pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical pathways. The recovery of high-value metals is more environmentally justified compared to other metals. However, biometallurgical pathways remain limited in terms of environmental studies. Despite the potential for recycling e-waste into plastic or glass, there is a dearth of robust background in LCA studies within this sector. This review concludes that LCA can offer valuable insights for decision-making and policy processes on e-waste management, promoting environmentally sound e-waste recycling practices. However, the accuracy of LCA results in e-waste recycling, owing to data requirements, subjectivity, impact category weighting, and other factors, remains debatable, emphasizing the need for more uncertainty analysis in this field.

Challenges to implement and operationalize the WEEE reverse logistics system at the micro level

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) possesses unique characteristics such as its growing production and the potential for resource extraction due to its composition. The implementation and operationalization of a reverse logistics system (RLS) for WEEE is a challenge, particularly concerning the micro level. The implementation of such systems often prioritizes urban centers and their higher population densities, generally overlooking the micro level. The latter refers to ward- or village-level divisions, which can be regarded as the smallest administrative divisions of both urban and rural areas. Furthermore, it encompasses any area facing logistical challenges regarding RLS operationalization due to factors such as geographical isolation, budgetary constraints, imbalances, social isolation, environmental aspects, and even geopolitical conflicts. This study is aimed at addressing this literature gap by discussing the challenges to implement and operationalize a WEEE RLS at the micro level. A systematic literature review was employed as our methodology. We found 13 challenges for developed and developing countries without distinction between macro and micro levels. An additional approach highlighted the significance of monitoring and controlling WEEE RLS. The challenge The population and LRS entities' lack or insufficient training and awareness received the most citations in the conducted search. These challenges were organized by operational phase and discussed from the perspective of the micro level to comprehend multifactorial local challenges involving all stakeholders in the reverse logistics of WEEE in emerging nations. This can assist local administrators and constitutes the primary contribution of this study.

Municipal solid waste management with recyclable potential in developing countries: Current scenario and future perspectives

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a complex challenge to be solved worldwide, intensified in developing countries since in addition to economic and environmental aspects there is also the social aspect represented by the collector individual. From an integrative bibliographic review this study longitudinally analyses the socio-productive inclusion of collectors in the municipal solid waste management (MSWM) at an international level. Aiming: (a) to identify relevant articles describing/studies on MSWM with social inclusion of scavengers around the world; (b) to analyse these articles in order to present its main characteristics; (c) to describe municipal solid waste management with recyclable potential (MSWRP) with socio-productive inclusion of collectors; (d) the study provides a more detailed summary of MSWRP management in some developing countries: Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria and Pakistan; and (e) to provide a framework indicating the future practices and perspectives of MSWRP. As result, this study presents the paradigms and future questions for an effective improvement of WSWM, such as: Professional Training of Scavengers, Cultural Issues, Empowerment of Scavenger, Recycling Cooperatives and Cooperativism, Policy Issues and Recycling Chain, Management Systems and Process Improvement, Quality of Services Provided, Circular Economy and Informal Sector, Health Quality and Safety at Work, Barriers and Solutions for the Inclusion of the Informal Sector, Environmental, Economic and Social Benefits.

Blood lead levels of children exposed to e-waste: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Blood lead levels (BLLs) have been decreasing worldwide for decades. However, systematic reviews and quantitative syntheses of BLLs in electronic waste (e-waste)-exposed children are lacking. To summarize temporal trend of BLLs among children in e-waste-recycling areas. Fifty-one studies met the inclusion criteria and included participants from six countries. Meta-analysis was performed using the random-effects model. Results showed that among e-waste-exposed children, the total geometric mean (GM) BLL was 7.54 μg/dL (95% CI: 6.77, 8.31). Children's BLLs displayed a decreasing temporal trend, from 11.77 μg/dL in phase I (2004-2006) to 4.63 μg/dL in phase V (2016-2018). Almost 95% of eligible studies found that children exposed to e-waste had significantly higher BLLs than reference groups. The difference of children's BLLs between the exposure group and the reference group was from 6.60 μg/dL (95% CI: 6.14, 7.05) in 2004 to 1.99 μg/dL (95% CI: 1.61, 2.36) in 2018. For subgroup analyses, except for Dhaka and Montevideo, the BLLs of children from Guiyu in the same survey year were higher than those of children from other regions. Our findings indicate that the gap between BLLs of children exposed to e-waste and those of reference group children is closing, and we appeal that the critical value for blood lead poisoning in children should be lowered in key e-waste-dismantling areas of developing countries, such as Guiyu.

A review on recovery processes of metals from E-waste: A green perspective

E-waste management has become a global concern because of the enormous rise in the rate of end-of-life electrical and electronic equipment's (EEEs). Disposal of waste EEE directly into the environment leads to adverse effects on the environment as well as on human health. For the management of E-waste, numerous studies have been carried out for extracting metals (base, precious, and rare earth) following pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and biometallurgy. Irrespective of the advantages of these processes, certain limitations still exist with each of these options in terms of their adoption as treatment techniques. Several journal publications regarding the different processes have been made which aids in future research in the field of E-waste management. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the various metal recovery processes (pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and biometallurgy) from E-waste, along with their advantages and limitations. A bibliometric study based on the published articles using different keywords in Scopus has been provided for a complete idea about E-waste with green technology perspective like bioleaching, biosorption, etc. The present study also focussed on the circular economic approach towards sustainable E-waste management along with its socio-economic aspects and the economic growth of the country. The present study would provide valuable knowledge in understanding E-waste and its different treatment processes to the students, researchers, industrialists, and policymakers of the country.

Evolutionary game analysis of WEEE recycling tripartite stakeholders under variable subsidies and processing fees

The standardization of formal recycling and rational subsidy plays an important role in waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling. In order to explore the tripartite decision and evolution path of waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling in different time periods, a tripartite evolutionary game model consisting of recyclers, manufacturers, and government are presented. Moreover, the evolution stability strategies and conditions in each period are calculated by replicating the dynamic equation and Jacobian matrix. Numerical simulations on tripartite evolution stability strategies corresponding to different stages of industry development are used to verify the rationality of the model. The results indicate that there is existed an indirect effect between tripartite decisions, and the indirect effect can expand the slack of tripartite decisions' thresholds of waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling. The variable subsidy in waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling proposed in this paper is useful to incentive recyclers to choose a formal recycling strategy, and manufacturers also choose production with recycled materials as subsidy varies. Besides, the appropriate waste electrical and electronic equipment processing fee is a conducive indirect effect for the tripartite decision to the optimal evolutionary stability strategy in waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling and can promote manufacturers to produce with the recycled materials. The research can assist in benefit coordination and behavior adjustment of waste electrical and electronic equipment recycling members and provide a theoretical basis for the government to formulate appropriate recycling subsidies to promote the formal recycling of electronic waste recycling.

Urgency of technology and equipment upgrades in e-waste dismantling base: Pollution identification and emission reduction

Recycling of electronic waste (e-waste) and inevitable pollution under current technology have always been a concern of people. Generation and release of pollutants in the recycling process of e-waste are closely related to processing technology and equipment. In this paper, the pollution characteristics of different functional areas and critical processing units in formal e-waste dismantling base have been studied systematically and comprehensively. The results showed that the overall pollutants concentration in crushing workshop and cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor disposing workshop are much higher than other functional areas. Screen-cone glass separation for CRT monitor was the processing unit with the greatest exposure risk and the hazard index (HI) of Pb was 4.60. Pollutant emission factor of the main processing units was calculated and the waste printed circuit board (WPCB) crushing was the most polluted unit. Appropriate improvements in technology and equipment can effectively reduce the generation and release of pollutants. Some reasonable prospects about intelligent equipment and special technologies were proposed for e-waste disposal. All the results provided theoretical and data support for pollution control and technology upgrade of the formal e-waste dismantling base.

Circular economy approach in solid waste management system to achieve UN-SDGs: Solutions for post-COVID recovery

The COVID-19 pandemic and the ensuing socioeconomic crisis has impeded progress towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs). This paper investigates the impact of COVID 19 on the progress of the SDGs and provides insight into how green recovery stimulus, driven by circular economy (CE)-based solid waste management (SWM) could assist in attaining the intended targets of UN-SDG. It was understood in this review that the guiding principles of the UN-SDGs such as, public health, environmental concerns, resource value and economic development are similar to those that have driven the growth of waste management activities; thus, in order to achieve the goals of UN-SDG, a circular economy approach in solid waste management system should be prioritized in the post-COVID economic agenda. However, policy, technology and public involvement issues may hinder the shift to the CE model; therefore, niche growth might come from developing distinctive waste management-driven green jobs, formalizing informal waste pickers and by focusing in education and training of informal worker. The review also emphasized in creating green jobs by investing in recycling infrastructure which would enable us to address the climate change related concerns which is one of the key target of UN- SDG. The CE-based product designs and business models would emphasize multifunctional goods, extending the lifespan of products and their parts, and intelligent manufacturing to help the public and private sectors maximise product utility (thus reducing waste generation) while providing long-term economic and environmental benefits. The study also recommended strong policies that prioritized investments in decentralization of solid waste systems, localization of supply chains, recycling and green recovery, information sharing, and international collaboration in order to achieve the UN-SDGs.