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Islam MT, Cheng J, Sadmani AHMA, Reinhart D, Chang NB. Investigating removal mechanisms of long- and short-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances using specialty adsorbents in a field-scale surface water filtration system. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 474:134646. [PMID: 38838519 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.134646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
This study assessed the application of two specialty adsorbents, also known as green sorption media (GSM), including clay-perlite and sand sorption media (CPS) and zero-valent iron and perlite green environmental media (ZIPGEM) to remove long- and short-chain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) at field scale. The field-scale demonstration employed four GSM filter cells installed near the C-23 Canal (St. Lucie County, FL), which discharges water to the ecologically sensitive St. Lucie River estuary and to the Atlantic Ocean finally. Although prior lab-scale experiments had demonstrated the effectiveness of CPS and ZIPGEM in treating long-chain PFAS, their performance in field-scale application warranted further investigation. The study reveals the critical roles of divalent cations such as Ca2+ and monovalent cations such as ammonium and hydronium ions, as well as other water quality parameters, on PFAS removal efficacy. Ammonia, most likely resulting from photo- and bacterial ammonification, gives rise to elevated ammonium ion formation in the wet season due to the decrease in pH, which ultimately worsens PFAS adsorption. Moreover, there is a strong negative correlation between pH and PFAS removal efficiency in the presence of ammonia, as evidenced by the reduced removal of PFAS during events associated with low pH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Touhidul Islam
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Jinxiang Cheng
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - A H M Anwar Sadmani
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Debra Reinhart
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Ni-Bin Chang
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA.
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2
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Usman M, Chaudhary A, Hanna K. Efficient PFAS removal from contaminated soils through combined washing and adsorption in soil effluents. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 476:135118. [PMID: 38981229 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.135118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 06/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates soil washing as a viable strategy to remove poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) from contaminated soils using various washing agents including water, methanol, ethanol, and cyclodextrin ((2-Hydroxypropyl)-β-cyclodextrin HPCD)). Water was less effective (removing only 30 % of PFAS), especially for long-chain hydrophobic PFAS. Methanol (50 % v/v) or HPCD (10 mg g-1 soil) achieved > 95 % PFAS removal regardless of PFAS type, soil size fraction (0-400 µm or 400-800 µm), or experimental setups (batch or column, at liquid/solid (L/S) = 1). Column optimization studies revealed improved efficiency at L/S = 10 with diluted washing solutions, where HPCD exhibited rapid PFAS mobilization even at lower concentrations (1 mg mL-1). We then applied a first-order decay model to effectively predict PFAS breakthrough curves and mobilization within soil columns. Subsequent treatment of wash effluents by activated carbon and biochar effectively reduced PFAS concentrations below detection limits. The performance of both soil washing and subsequent adsorption was found to depend strongly on the specific characteristics of PFAS compounds. These findings highlight the significant potential of methanol and HPCD in soil washing and the effectiveness of integrated soil washing and adsorption for optimizing PFAS removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Usman
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France.
| | - Aaifa Chaudhary
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France; Environmental Mineralogy & Chemistry, Center for Applied Geosciences, University of Tübingen, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Khalil Hanna
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000 Rennes, France.
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3
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Guo H, Hu T, Yang X, Liu Z, Cui Q, Qu C, Guo F, Liu S, Sweetman AJ, Hou J, Tan W. Roles of varying carbon chains and functional groups of legacy and emerging per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances in adsorption on metal-organic framework: Insights into mechanism and adsorption prediction. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2024; 251:118679. [PMID: 38518904 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2024.118679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are promising adsorbents for legacy per-/polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), but they are being replaced by emerging PFASs. The effects of varying carbon chains and functional groups of emerging PFASs on their adsorption behavior on MOFs require attention. This study systematically revealed the structure-adsorption relationships and interaction mechanisms of legacy and emerging PFASs on a typical MOF MIL-101(Cr). It also presented an approach reflecting the average electronegativity of PFAS moieties for adsorption prediction. We demonstrated that short-chain or sulfonate PFASs showed higher adsorption capacities (μmol/g) on MIL-101(Cr) than their long-chain or carboxylate counterparts, respectively. Compared with linear PFASs, their branched isomers were found to exhibit a higher adsorption potential on MIL-101(Cr). In addition, the introduction of ether bond into PFAS molecule (e.g., hexafluoropropylene oxide dimeric acid, GenX) increased the adsorption capacity, while the replacement of CF2 moieties in PFAS molecule with CH2 moieties (e.g., 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonate, 6:2 FTS) caused a decrease in adsorption. Divalent ions (such as Ca2+ and SO42-) and solution pH have a greater effect on the adsorption of PFASs containing ether bonds or more CF2 moieties. PFAS adsorption on MIL-101(Cr) was governed by electrostatic interaction, complexation, hydrogen bonding, π-CF interaction, and π-anion interaction as well as steric effects, which were associated with the molecular electronegativity and chain length of each PFAS. The average electronegativity of individual moieties (named Me) for each PFAS was estimated and found to show a significantly positive correlation with the corresponding adsorption capacity on MIL-101(Cr). The removal rates of major PFASs in contaminated groundwater by MIL-101(Cr) were also correlated with the corresponding Me values. These findings will assist with the adsorption prediction for a wide range of PFASs and contribute to tailoring efficient MOF materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Guo
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Health and Green Remediation, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Tongyu Hu
- Beijing Construction Engineering Environmental Remediation Co., Ltd., Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xiaoman Yang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Health and Green Remediation, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhaoyang Liu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Health and Green Remediation, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | | | - Chenchen Qu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Health and Green Remediation, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fayang Guo
- Institute of Resource and Environment, Henan Polytechnic University, Jiaozuo 454000, China
| | - Shun Liu
- The Seventh Geological Brigade of Hubei Geological Bureau, Yichang 443100, China
| | - Andrew J Sweetman
- Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ, UK
| | - Jingtao Hou
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Health and Green Remediation, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Wenfeng Tan
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Soil Health and Green Remediation, College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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4
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Bucaletti E, Barola C, Galarini R. Chloroperfluoropolyether carboxylate compounds: A review. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 357:142045. [PMID: 38641293 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Revised: 04/03/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024]
Abstract
Several new per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have been synthesized to replace traditional (legacy) PFASs frequently without clear information on their structure, use and potential toxicity. Among them, chloroperfluoropolyether carboxylates (ClPFPECAs) are an emerging group used as processing aids in the production of fluoropolymers to replace the ammonium salt of perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA). The Solvay Company has produced ClPFPECAs as a mixture of six congeners (oligomers) since the mid-1990s, but other possible manufacturers and annual quantities synthesized and used worldwide are unknown. Initial studies to monitor their presence were conducted because of public authority concerns about suspect environmental contamination near fluoropolymer plants. As of 2015, these chemicals have been found in soil, water, vegetative tissues and wildlife, as well as in biological fluids of exposed workers and people, in research carried out mainly in the United States (New Jersey) and Italy. Analysis of wildlife collected even in non-industrialized areas demonstrated widespread occurrence of ClPFPECAs. From the analytical point of view, the (presumptive) evidence of their presence was obtained through the application of non-targeted approaches performed by liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Available toxicological data show that ClPFPECAs have similar adverse effects than the compounds which they have replaced, whereas their carcinogenic potential and reproductive damage are currently unknown. All these observations once again cast doubt on whether many alternatives to traditional PFAS are actually safer for the environment and health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabetta Bucaletti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Umbria e delle Marche "Togo Rosati", Via G. Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Carolina Barola
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Umbria e delle Marche "Togo Rosati", Via G. Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy
| | - Roberta Galarini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Umbria e delle Marche "Togo Rosati", Via G. Salvemini, 1, 06126, Perugia, Italy.
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5
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Hamid H, Nicomel NR, Mohamed BA, Abida O, Li LY. Adsorption and leaching of fluorotelomer compounds and perfluoroalkyl acids in aqueous media by activated carbon prepared from municipal biosolids. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2024; 358:120839. [PMID: 38599091 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.120839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) are ubiquitous in nature and pose serious health risks to humans and animals. Limiting PFAA exposure requires novel technology for their effective removal from water. We investigated the efficacy of biosolid-based activated carbon (Bio-SBAC) in removing frequently detected PFAAs and their precursor fluorotelomer compounds at environmentally relevant concentrations (∼50 μg/L). Batch experiments were performed to investigate adsorption kinetics, isotherms, and leachability. Bio-SBAC achieved >95% removal of fluorotelomeric compounds, indicating that the need for PFAA removal from the environment could be minimised if the precursors were targeted. Kinetic data modelling suggested that chemisorption is the dominant PFAA adsorption mechanism. As evidenced by the isotherm modelling results, Freundlich adsorption intensity, n-1, values of <1 (0.707-0.938) indicate chemisorption. Bio-SBAC showed maximum capacities for the adsorption of perfluorooctanoic acid (1429 μg/g) and perfluorononanoic acid (1111 μg/g). Batch desorption tests with 100 mg/L humic acid and 10 g/L NaCl showed that Bio-SBAC effectively retained the adsorbed PFAA with little or no leaching, except perfluorobutanoic acid. Overall, this study revealed that Bio-SBAC is a value-added material with promising characteristics for PFAA adsorption and no leachability. Additionally, it can be incorporated into biofilters to remove PFAAs from stormwater, presenting a sustainable approach to minimise biosolid disposal and improve the quality of wastewater before discharge into receiving waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanna Hamid
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Nina Ricci Nicomel
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Badr A Mohamed
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Agricultural Engineering, Cairo University, El-Gamma Street, Giza, 12613, Egypt
| | - Otman Abida
- African Sustainable Agriculture Research Institute (ASARI), Mohammed VI Polytechnic University (UM6P), Laâyoune 70000, Morocco
| | - Loretta Y Li
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of British Columbia, 6250 Applied Science Lane, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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6
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Wang J, Shen C, Zhang J, Lou G, Shan S, Zhao Y, Man YB, Li Y. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in Chinese surface water: Temporal trends and geographical distribution. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 915:170127. [PMID: 38242487 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
PFAS, recognized as persistent organic pollutants, present risks to both the ecological environment and human health. Studying PFASs in surface water yields insights into pollution dynamics. However, existing research on PFASs surface water pollution in China often focuses on specific regions, lacking comprehensive nationwide analyses. This study examined 48 research papers covering PFAS pollution in Chinese surface water, involving 49 regions and 1338 sampling sites. The results indicate widespread PFAS contamination, even in regions like Tibet. Predominant PFAS types include PFOA and PFOS, and pollution is associated with the relocation of industries from developed to developing countries post-2010. The shift from long-chain to short-chain PFASs aligns with recent environmental policy proposals. Geographic concentration of PFAS pollution correlates with industry distribution and economic development levels. Addressing point source pollution, especially from wastewater plant tailwater, is crucial for combating PFAS contamination. Greater emphasis should be placed on addressing short-chain PFASs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Wang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, PR China
| | - Cheng Shen
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, PR China; Dooge Centre for Water Resources Research, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
| | - Jin Zhang
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, PR China
| | - Guangyu Lou
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, PR China
| | - Shengdao Shan
- Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Recycling and Eco-Treatment of Waste Biomass, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, PR China
| | - Yaqian Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-Hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region, Xi'an University of Technology, Xi'an 710048, PR China; Dooge Centre for Water Resources Research, School of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
| | - Yu Bon Man
- Consortium on Health, Environment, Education and Research (CHEER), Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yuliang Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Water and Environment, Chang'an University, Xi'an 710064, PR China.
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7
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Lv D, Liu H, An Q, Lei C, Wang Y, Sun J, Li C, Lin Y, Dong Q, Yang Z, Che K, Liu W, Han W. Association of adverse fetal outcomes with placental inflammation after oral gestational exposure to hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (GenX) in Sprague-Dawley rats. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 461:132536. [PMID: 37717439 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/10/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), known as "GenX" for its trade name, is gradually taking the place of Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). However, there is a poor understanding of the developmental effects of GenX. This study aims to explore whether GenX produces adverse effects on offspring development in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and the underlying mechanisms. Pregnant rats were orally administered with GenX (0, 1, 10 and 100 mg/kg/day) from gestational 0.5-19.5 days. Experimental data showed that the exposure to GenX resulted in increased rats' gestational weight gain, whereas both body weight and body length of their fetuses born naturally were significantly reduced. This could contribute to the developmental delays of fetal body weight, body length and tail length from postnatal 1-21 days. Histopathological evaluation of placenta indicated that GenX exposure led to neutrophil infiltration in decidual zone and congestion in labyrinth zone. Moreover, placental proteomics showed changes at the expression levels of the inflammation-related proteins in the Rap1 signaling pathway. In conclusion, gestational exposure to GenX induced fetal intrauterine and extrauterine development retardation in SD rats. Placental inflammation may play a key role in this process through the Rap1 signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Lv
- Pediatrics Department, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao 266071, China; Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Hongyun Liu
- Pathology Department, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Qi An
- Child Healthcare Department, Qingdao Women and Children's Hospital, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Chengwei Lei
- Pediatrics Department, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao 266071, China; Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yanxuan Wang
- Pediatrics Department, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao 266071, China; Qingdao Medical College, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Jin Sun
- Department of Developmental Pediatrics and Child Health Care, The First Affiliated Hospital of Shandong First Medical University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Chuanhai Li
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yongfeng Lin
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Qing Dong
- Pediatrics Department, The Affiliated Taian City Central Hospital of Qingdao University, Taian 271000, China
| | - Zhugen Yang
- School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield University, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
| | - Kui Che
- Key Laboratory of Thyroid Diseases, Medical Research Center, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Wendong Liu
- Pediatrics Department, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Wenchao Han
- Pediatrics Department, Qingdao Hospital, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences (Qingdao Municipal Hospital), Qingdao 266071, China.
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Sellaoui L, Dhaouadi F, Abdulaziz F, Alsehli AH, M Alsowayigh M, Dotto GL, da Boit Martinello K, Silva LFO, Rtimi S, Bonilla-Petriciolet A. Adsorption of perfluorooctanoic carboxylic and heptadecafluorooctane sulfonic acids via magnetic chitosan: isotherms and modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:118410-118417. [PMID: 37910375 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-30600-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/03/2023]
Abstract
This paper evaluates the adsorption mechanism of perfluorooctanoic carboxylic acid (PFCA) and heptadecafluorooctane sulfonic acid (HFOSA) on magnetic chitosan for the first time via a statistical physics modeling. Magnetic chitosan (MC-CoFe2O4) was produced from shrimp wastes and used in standard batch adsorption systems to remove PFCA and HFOSA. The experimental isotherms indicated that the maximum adsorption capacities ranged from 14 to 27.12 mg/g and from 19.16 to 45.12 mg/g for PFCA and HFOSA, respectively, where an exothermic behavior was observed for both compounds. The adsorption data were studied via an advanced model hypothesizing that a multilayer process occurred for these adsorption systems. This theoretical approach indicated that the total number of formed layers of PFCA and HFOSA adsorbates is about 3 (Nt = 2.83) at high temperatures (328 K) where a molecular aggregation process was noted during the adsorption. The maximum saturation-multilayer adsorption of PFCA and HFOSA on magnetic chitosan was 30.77 and 50.26 mg/g, respectively, and the corresponding adsorption mechanisms were successfully investigated. Two energies were responsible for the formed adsorbate layer directly on the surface and the vertical layers were computed and interpreted, reflecting that physical interactions were involved to bind these molecules on the adsorbent surface at different temperatures where the calculated adsorption energies ranged from 14 to 31 kJ/mol. Overall, this work provides theoretical insights to understand the adsorption mechanism of PFCA and HFOSA using the statistical physics modeling and its results can be used to improve the adsorbent performance for engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lotfi Sellaoui
- CRMN, Centre for Research on Microelectronics and Nanotechnology of Sousse, NANOMISENE, LR16CRMN01, Code Postal 4054, Sousse, Tunisia.
- Laboratory of Quantum and Statistical Physics, Faculty of Sciences of Monastir, Monastir University, LR18ES18, Monastir, Tunisia.
| | - Fatma Dhaouadi
- Laboratory of Quantum and Statistical Physics, Faculty of Sciences of Monastir, Monastir University, LR18ES18, Monastir, Tunisia
| | - Fahad Abdulaziz
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, University of Ha'il, 81451, Ha'il, Saudi Arabia
| | - Amal H Alsehli
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, Taibah University, 42353, Madinah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marwah M Alsowayigh
- Chemistry Department, College of Science, King Faisal University, 31982, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Guilherme Luiz Dotto
- Research Group on Adsorptive and Catalytic Process Engineering (ENGEPAC), Federal University of Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000-7, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Kátia da Boit Martinello
- Research Group on Adsorptive and Catalytic Process Engineering (ENGEPAC), Federal University of Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000-7, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Luis F O Silva
- Research Group on Adsorptive and Catalytic Process Engineering (ENGEPAC), Federal University of Santa Maria, Av. Roraima, 1000-7, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Sami Rtimi
- Global Institute for Water, Environment, And Health (GIWEH), 1210, Geneva, Switzerland
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9
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Liu G, Usman M, Luo T, Biard PF, Lin K, Greenwell HC, Hanna K. Retention and transport of PFOA and its fluorinated substitute, GenX, through water-saturated soil columns. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 337:122530. [PMID: 37690470 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoro-2-propoxypropanoic acid (GenX) has emerged as a substitute for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) especially since PFOA was listed among the persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention in 2019. However, limited knowledge exists regarding the behavior and mobility of GenX in natural soils hindering the prediction of its environmental fate. This study investigated the mobility and retention of GenX and PFOA in soils under batch and water-saturated flow-through conditions. Batch experiments revealed that GenX has a lower binding affinity to soil than longer-chained PFOA, potentially threatening groundwater resources. Unlike metal-oxides/minerals (ferrihydrite, gibbsite and manganese dioxide), biochar (BC) and activated carbon (AC) amendments significantly enhanced the sorption of both GenX and PFOA in soil. Sorption data on minerals and carbonaceous materials implied that for shorter-chained GenX, the predominant mode of sorption was through electrostatic (ionic) interactions, while for longer-chained PFOA, hydrophobic interactions became progressively more important with increasing chain length. The dynamic flow experiments demonstrated that these soil amendments enhanced the retention of both compounds, thereby decreasing their mobility. Simultaneous injection of both compounds into columns pre-loaded with either PFOA or GenX increased their retardation. GenX sorption was more affected by pre-sorbed PFOA compared to the minimal impact of pre-loaded GenX on PFOA sorption. A newly developed reactive transport model, which incorporates a two-site sorption model and accounts for kinetic-limited processes, accurately predicted the sorption and transport of both compounds in single and binary contamination systems. These findings have important implications for predicting and assessing the fate and mobility of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in soils and groundwaters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanhong Liu
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000, Rennes, France; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resource and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Muhammad Usman
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Tao Luo
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Pierre-François Biard
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000, Rennes, France
| | - Kuangfei Lin
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resource and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - H Chris Greenwell
- Department of Chemistry, Durham University, Mountjoy Site, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Khalil Hanna
- Université de Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, F-35000, Rennes, France; Department of Chemistry, Durham University, Mountjoy Site, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK.
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10
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Zhang C, Xu Y, Liu W, Zhou H, Zhang N, Fang Z, Gao J, Sun X, Feng D, Sun X. New insights into the degradation mechanism and risk assessment of HFPO-DA by advanced oxidation processes based on activated persulfate in aqueous solutions. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 263:115298. [PMID: 37499385 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Revised: 07/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) is widely used as a substitute for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). HFPO-DA exhibits high water solubility and low adsorption potential, conferring significant fluidity in aquatic environments. Given that the toxicity of HFPO-DA is similar to PFOA, it is necessary to control its content in aquatic environments. Electrochemical and thermally-activated persulfates have been successfully used to degrade HFPO-DA, but UV-activated persulfates cannot degrade the compound. Given that research on degradation mechanisms is still incomplete and lacks kinetic research, the mechanism and kinetic calculations of oxidative degradation were studied in detail using DFT calculations. And the toxicity of HFPO-DA degradation intermediates and products was evaluated to reveal the feasibility of using advanced oxidation process (AOP) technology based on persulfate to degrade HFPO-DA in wastewater. The results showed that the committed step of HFPO-DA degradation was initiated by the electron transfer reaction of SO4•- radicals. This reaction is not spontaneous at room temperature and requires sufficient electrical or thermal energy to be absorbed from the external environment. The perfluoroalcohol produced during this reaction can subsequently undergo four possible reactions: H atom abstraction from alcohol groups by an OH radical; H atom abstraction by SO4•-; direct HF removal; and HF removal with water as the catalyst. The final degradation products of HFPO-DA mainly include CO2, CF3CF2COOH, CF3COOH, FCOOH and HF, which has been identified through previous experimental analysis. Ecotoxicity assessment indicates that degradation does not produce highly toxic intermediates, and that the final products are non-toxic, supporting the feasibility of persulfate-based AOP technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenxi Zhang
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China; Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Youxin Xu
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China; Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Wenyan Liu
- School of agriculture, Ludong University, Yantai 264025, China
| | - Huaiyu Zhou
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China
| | - Ningning Zhang
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China
| | - Zhihao Fang
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China
| | - Junping Gao
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China
| | - Xiaoan Sun
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China
| | - Di Feng
- Shandong Facility Horticulture Bioengineering Research Center, Weifang University of Science and Technology, Weifang 262700, China.
| | - Xiaomin Sun
- Environment Research Institute, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China.
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11
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Ateia M, Buren JV, Barrett W, Martin T, Back GG. Sunrise of PFAS Replacements: A Perspective on Fluorine-Free Foams. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING 2023; 11:7986-7996. [PMID: 37476647 PMCID: PMC10354943 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c01124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/22/2023]
Abstract
One type of firefighting foam, referred to as aqueous filmforming foams (AFFF), is known to contain per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). The concerns raised with PFAS, and their potential environmental and health impacts, have led to a surge in research on fluorine-free alternatives both in the United States and globally. Particularly, in January 2023, a new military specification (MIL-PRF-32725) for fluorine-free foam was released in accordance with Congressional requirements for the U.S. Department of Defense. This paper provides a critical analysis of the present state of the various fluorine-free options that have been developed to date. A nuanced perspective of the challenges and opportunities of more sustainable replacements is explored by examining the performance, cost, and regulatory considerations associated with these fluorine-free alternatives. Ultimately, this evaluation shows that the transition to fluorine-free replacements is likely to be complex and multifaceted, requiring careful consideration of the trade-offs involved. Yet, the ongoing work will provide valuable insights for future research on alternatives to AFFF and enhancing the safety and sustainability of fire suppression systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed Ateia
- Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45204, United States; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Jean Van Buren
- Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45204, United States
| | - William Barrett
- Center for Environmental Solutions & Emergency Response, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45204, United States
| | - Todd Martin
- Center for Computational Toxicology and Exposure, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio 45204, United States
| | - Gerard G Back
- Jensen Hughes, Inc., Halethorpe, Maryland 21227, United States
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12
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Sahu O. Remediation of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) with nano ceramic clay: Synthesis, characterization, scale-up and regenerations. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 322:121241. [PMID: 36764378 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the ecosystem, resulting from industrial effluent and water bodies, has attracted greater concern. An economical treatment is in demand to optimize the current issue. In this research work, Perfluorooctanoic Acid was treated from drinking water sources with nano-ceramic clay. The ceramic clay was synthesized and characterized with Fourier infrared transformation, scanning electron micrograph, transmission electron micrograph, x-ray diffraction, and thermal analysis. An adsorption process was performed in batch and continuous modes for the effective conditions for maximum removal. In batch mode 82 ± 12 nm ceramic clay particle size; 3.0 initial pH; 210 rpm agitation 1.2 mg/L PFOA concentration; 100 mg/L clay dosage; 27 °C temperature, and 20hrs experimental time shows maximum 99.15% adsorption. The experimental data is well fitted with kinetics, isotherms, and thermodynamics calculated data. In fixed bed, continuous column study 10 h treatment time, 10 cm of bed height, and 2 ml/min were adsorbed 99.99% of PFOA. The experimental data from the fixed bed adsorption equipment was correlated using a number of different mathematical models, including the Thomas, Adams-Bohart, Yoon-Nelson, and Clark models. Overall nano ceramic clay was found to potential adsorbent for Perfluorooctanoic acid removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omprakash Sahu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, UIE, Chandigarh University, Mohali, India.
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13
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Li Z, Luo ZM, Huang Y, Wang JW, Ouyang G. Recent trends in degradation strategies of PFOA/PFOS substitutes. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 315:137653. [PMID: 36581124 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The global elimination and restriction of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), respectively, have urged manufacturers to shift production to their substitutes which still pose threat to the environment with their bioaccumulation, toxicity and migration issues. In this context, efficient technologies and systematic mechanistic studies on the degradation of PFOA/PFOS substitutes are highly desirable. In this review, we summarize the progress in degrading PFOA/PFOS substitutes, including four kinds of mainstream methods. The pros and cons of the present technologies are analyzed, which renders the discussion of future prospects on rational optimizations. Additional discussion is made on the differences in the degradation of various kinds of substitutes, which is compared to the PFOA/PFOS and derives designing principles for more degradable F-containing compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zizi Li
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Zhi-Mei Luo
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Yanjun Huang
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Jia-Wei Wang
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China.
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China.
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14
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Huang J, Shi Y, Huang G, Huang S, Zheng J, Xu J, Zhu F, Ouyang G. Facile Synthesis of a Fluorinated‐Squaramide Covalent Organic Framework for the Highly Efficient and Broad‐Spectrum Removal of Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Pollutants. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202206749. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202206749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junlong Huang
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Yueru Shi
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Guo‐zhang Huang
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Shuyao Huang
- Instrumental Analysis and Research Center (IARC) Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Juan Zheng
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Jianqiao Xu
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Fang Zhu
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
- Institute of Analysis Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou) Guangzhou 510070 China
- Chemistry College Center of Advanced Analysis and Gene Sequencing Zhengzhou University Kexue Avenue 100 Zhengzhou 450001 China
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15
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Robarts DR, Venneman KK, Gunewardena S, Apte U. GenX induces fibroinflammatory gene expression in primary human hepatocytes. Toxicology 2022; 477:153259. [PMID: 35850385 PMCID: PMC9741548 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2022.153259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The toxicity induced by the persistent organic pollutants per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) is dependent on the length of their polyfluorinated tail. Long-chain PFASs have significantly longer half-lives and profound toxic effects compared to their short-chain counterparts. Recently, production of a short-chain PFAS substitute called ammonium 2,3,3,3-tetrafluoro-2-(heptafluoropropoxy) propanoate, also known as GenX, has significantly increased. However, the adverse health effects of GenX are not completely known. In this study, we investigated the dose-dependent effects of GenX on primary human hepatocytes (PHH). Freshly isolated PHH were treated with either 0.1, 10, or 100 μM of GenX for 48 and 96 h; then, global transcriptomic changes were determined using Human Clariom™ D arrays. GenX-induced transcriptional changes were similar at 0.1 and 10 μM doses but were significantly different at the 100 μM dose. Genes involved in lipid, monocarboxylic acid, and ketone metabolism were significantly altered following exposure of PHH at all doses. However, at the 100 μM dose, GenX caused changes in genes involved in cell proliferation, inflammation and fibrosis. A correlation analysis of concentration and differential gene expression revealed that 576 genes positively (R > 0.99) and 375 genes negatively (R < -0.99) correlated with GenX concentration. The upstream regulator analysis indicated HIF1α was inhibited at the lower doses but were activated at the higher dose. Additionally, VEGF, PPARα, STAT3, and SMAD4 signaling was induced at the 100 µM dose. These data indicate that at lower doses GenX can interfere with metabolic pathways and at higher doses can induce fibroinflammatory changes in human hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dakota R Robarts
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Kaitlyn K Venneman
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Sumedha Gunewardena
- Department of Molecular and Integrative Physiology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
| | - Udayan Apte
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutics, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA.
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16
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Huang J, Shi Y, Huang G, Huang S, Zheng J, Xu J, Zhu F, Ouyang G. Facile Synthesis of a Fluorinated‐Squaramide Covalent Organic Framework for the Highly Efficient and Board‐Spectrum Removal of Per‐ and Polyfluoroalkyl Pollutants. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202206749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junlong Huang
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Yueru Shi
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Guo‐zhang Huang
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Shuyao Huang
- Instrumental Analysis and Research Center (IARC) Sun Yat-Sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Juan Zheng
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Jianqiao Xu
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Fang Zhu
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- School of Chemistry Sun Yat-sen University Guangzhou 510275 China
- Institute of Analysis Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou) Guangzhou 510070 China
- Chemistry College Center of Advanced Analysis and Gene Sequencing Zhengzhou University Kexue Avenue 100 Zhengzhou 450001 China
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17
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Xie R, Zhou L, Smith AE, Almquist CB, Berberich JA, Danielson ND. A dual grafted fluorinated hydrocarbon amine weak anion exchange resin polymer for adsorption of perfluorooctanoic acid from water. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 431:128521. [PMID: 35231815 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a persistent and recalcitrant organic contaminant of exceptional environmental concern, and its removal from water has increasingly attracted global attention due to its wide distribution and strong bioaccumulation. Adsorption is considered an effective technique for PFOA removal and more efficient PFOA sorbents are still of interest. This study developed a dual grafted fluorinated hydrocarbon amine weak anion exchange (WAX) polymeric resin (Sepra-WAX-KelF-PEI) for PFOA removal from water. This polymer was synthesized by a two-step amine grafting reaction procedure involving first the reaction of the Sepra-WAX hydrocarbon polymer with poly(vinylidinefluoride-chlorotrifluoroethylene) (Kel-F 800) and then a second reaction with polyethyleneimine (PEI). Characterization of the synthesized polymers was performed using scanning electron microscopy and elemental analysis (F and Cl) by energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The PFOA adsorption performance evaluations were conducted by packed column flow analyses with on-line detection. The results show the breakthrough of the Sepra-WAX-KelF-PEI synthesized with optimum stoichiometry was two times better than the starting anion exchange polymer Sepra-WAX, and six times better than powdered activated carbon, when using the same column size. The adsorption mechanisms of this novel adsorbent including hydrophobic interaction and electrostatic interaction were also clarified in this study. The adsorption kinetic parameters of the two optimum synthesized sorbents were determined using the Thomas model, the Yoon-Nelson model, and batch isotherm studies, and compared with those found with activated carbon and the starting WAX resin. Good agreement of the batch isotherm and column studies with respect to adsorption capacities trends between all three polymers (Sepra-WAX, Sepra-WAX-KelF, and Sepra-WAX-KelF-PEI) were noted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruichao Xie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Ling Zhou
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Abigail E Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | | | - Jason A Berberich
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| | - Neil D Danielson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
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