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Kim I, Kim JM, Kim J, Lee SJ, Nam EC. Management of frontal sinus trauma: a retrospective study of surgical interventions and complications. Maxillofac Plast Reconstr Surg 2024; 46:4. [PMID: 38233722 PMCID: PMC10794673 DOI: 10.1186/s40902-024-00414-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Frontal sinus injuries are relatively rare among facial bone traumas. Without proper treatment, they can lead to fatal intracranial complications, including meningitis or brain abscesses, as well as aesthetic and functional sequelae. The management of frontal sinus injuries remains controversial, with various treatment methods and outcomes being reported. This article describes the clinical characteristics, surgical methods, and outcomes among 17 patients who underwent surgery for frontal sinus injury and related complications. CASE PRESENTATION We retrospectively included 17 patients who underwent surgery for frontal sinus injury and its related complications at the Kangwon National University Hospital between July 2010 and September 2021. Among them, six underwent simple open reduction and fixation of the anterior wall, eight underwent sinus obliteration, and three underwent cranialization. Two patients who underwent sinus obliteration died due to infection-related complications. The patient who underwent cranialization reported experiencing chronic headache and expressed dissatisfaction regarding the esthetic outcomes of the forehead. Except for these three patients, the other patients achieved satisfactory esthetic and functional recovery. CONCLUSION Active surgical management of frontal sinus injuries is often required owing to the various complications caused by these injuries; however, several factors, including the fracture type, clinical presentation, related craniomaxillofacial injury, and medical history, should be considered while formulating the treatment plan. Surgical treatment through the opening of the frontal sinus should be actively considered in patients with severely damaged posterior wall fractures and those at risk of developing infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- InKyeong Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, Kangwon National University Hospital, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Jeong-Mo Kim
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, Kangwon National University Hospital, Baengnyeong-ro 156, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, 24289, Korea.
| | - Jiha Kim
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Seung Jin Lee
- Department of Neurosurgery, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
| | - Eui-Cheol Nam
- Department of Otolaryngology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Korea
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Clarke K, Wilde C, Walker A, Nghiem AZ, Little S, Osborne SF. Combined upper lid skin crease and endoscopic approach to frontal sinus mucocoeles. Orbit 2023:1-8. [PMID: 38032741 DOI: 10.1080/01676830.2023.2287638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE This case series describes the ophthalmic manifestations of frontal sinus mucoceles and reports the long-term surgical outcomes of a combined endoscopic and upper-lid skin crease drainage approach carried out jointly with otorhinolaryngology. METHODS We present a retrospective case review of 18 orbits and 15 patients presenting with frontal sinus mucocoeles, all of whom underwent drainage via an adapted anterior orbitotomy approach between January 2015 and July 2023. Data collection included preoperative and postoperative examination findings (visual acuity, extraocular motility, lid retraction, and lagophthalmos), mucocoele recurrence, cosmetic satisfaction, and surgical complications. Patients were followed up for an average of 22 months. RESULTS All patients underwent successful frontal mucocoele drainage via a modified anterior orbitotomy and simultaneous endonasal approach. At presentation, three (20%) had extraocular restriction leading to diplopia, and six (40%) had proptosis in the eye adjacent to the mucocoele. One patient presented acutely with no light perception in the affected eye due to compressive optic neuropathy. All patients who had reduced extraocular motility before surgery regained full motility post-operatively. Treatment was successful in all cases, and there was no documented mucocoele recurrence during follow-up. Satisfactory aesthetic outcomes were achieved in all cases. Reported complications included temporary forehead numbness and ptosis of the affected eyelid, which resolved without intervention. CONCLUSION The modified anterior orbitotomy approach to frontal mucocoeles allows optimal frontal sinus access and mucocoele treatment while preserving cosmesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty Clarke
- Adnexal Department, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Caroline Wilde
- Adnexal Department, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Abigail Walker
- Adnexal Department, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Allan Z Nghiem
- Adnexal Department, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Sarah Little
- Adnexal Department, St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Sarah F Osborne
- Adnexal Department, Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Frontal Sinus Fractures: Evidence and Clinical Reflections. Plast Reconstr Surg Glob Open 2022; 10:e4266. [PMID: 35450261 PMCID: PMC9015196 DOI: 10.1097/gox.0000000000004266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Background: Despite significant advances in the management of frontal sinus fractures, there is still a paucity of large-cohort data, and a comprehensive synthesis of the current literature is warranted. The purpose of this study was to present an evidence-based overview of frontal sinus fracture management and outcomes. Methods: A comprehensive literature search of PubMed and MEDLINE was conducted for studies published between 1992 and 2020 investigating frontal sinus fractures. Data on fracture type, intervention, and outcome measurements were reported. Results: In total, 456 articles were identified, of which 53 met our criteria and were included in our analysis. No statistically significant difference in mechanism of injury, fracture pattern, form of management, or total complication rate was identified. We found a statistically significant increase in complication rates in patients with nasofrontal outflow tract injury compared with those without. Conclusions: Frontal sinus fracture management is a challenging clinical situation, with no widely accepted algorithm to guide appropriate management. Thorough clinical assessment of the fracture pattern and associated injuries can facilitate clinical decision-making.
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Becelli R, Palmieri M, Facchini V, Armocida D, Pesce A, Kapitonov A, Zappalà M, Colangeli W, Bozza F, Salvati M, Santoro A, Frati A. Management of frontal sinus fractures: A comprehensive review and treatment algorithm from Sapienza university of Rome. INTERDISCIPLINARY NEUROSURGERY 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.inat.2021.101318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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Spontaneous Osteogenesis of Dehiscent Frontal Sinus Wall After Endoscopic Removal of Mucocele. J Craniofac Surg 2021; 33:e1-e2. [PMID: 34267130 DOI: 10.1097/scs.0000000000007823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Paranasal sinus mucoceles commonly cause erosions of the bony walls. Currently, such defects can be managed conservatively with promising short-term outcomes. Long-term outcomes of these defects have not been described. The authors describe a 28-year-old patient with complete spontaneous osteogenesis of the large dehiscent frontal sinus posterior wall, secondary to a large mucocele, 9 years from functional endoscopic sinus surgery with the defect managed conservatively. Owing to the osteogenic potential of the dura, the authors postulate that the presence of dura beneath the bony deformity of the posterior frontal sinus wall had likely initiated the osteogenesis and restored the defect. This report substantiates studies demonstrating the osteogenic potential of an intact dura. Conservative management is an option for selected large defects of the posterior wall of the frontal sinus.
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Al-Shami H, Alnemare AK, Mahfoz TB, Salah AM. Traumatic Frontal Sinus Fractures Management: Experience from High-Trauma Centre. Korean J Neurotrauma 2021; 17:15-24. [PMID: 33981639 PMCID: PMC8093022 DOI: 10.13004/kjnt.2021.17.e3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Analysis of our traumatic brain injury data, reviewing current literatures and assessing planning valuable decision making in frontal sinus fracture for young neurosurgeons. Methods Hospital data base for head trauma was retrieved after board permission for retrospective analysis of cases admitted from 2010-2020. Patients with frontal sinus fractures and head trauma were identified according to a flow chart. Variables of the study included patients' demographics, mechanism of injury, incidence of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage, types of associated injuries, imaging findings and operative techniques. Results Three-hundred eighty two patients were eligible to be screened in our study and represented the sample size under investigations in the following sections, 206 (53.9%) of patients were treated conservatively while 176 patients (46.1%) were identified as having an indication for surgical intervention. Eighty-four percent of patients were males. The mean age was 36.2±9.4 years (14-86 years). Depressed skull fracture was commonly associated injury (17.61%). Leakage of CSF was found in 32.95% of patients. Conclusion Frontal sinus fracture is not an easy scenario. It harbors many proportions and deliver many varieties in which, deep understanding of anatomy, naso-frontal outflow tract status, CSF leakage and neurological injury are of important points in decision. Our institutional algorithm provide rapid, accessible and applicable treatment protocol for resident and young neurosurgeons which minimizes consultations of other specialties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hieder Al-Shami
- Department of Neurosurgery, Al-Ahly Bank Hospital, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmad K. Alnemare
- Department of Otolaryngology, College of Medicine, Majmaah University, Majmaah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Turki Bin Mahfoz
- Department of Otolaryngology, Faculty of Medicine, Al Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMSIU), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed M. Salah
- Department of Neurosurgery, Faculty of Medicine, Kasr Al-Ainy Medical College, Cairo, Egypt
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Miller C, Weisbrod L, Beahm D, Chamoun R. Compartmentalization: An Open Technique for Frontal Sinus Repair and Preservation-Description of Technique and Early Case Series. J Neurol Surg B Skull Base 2021; 82:189-195. [PMID: 33777633 DOI: 10.1055/s-0039-1696683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Cranialization or obliteration is widely accepted intervention for traumatic or intentional breach of the frontal sinus. These techniques, however, result in the loss of frontal sinus function and have a persistent risk of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak and mucocele. Compartmentalization is an open technique for repair of the frontal sinus using allograft onlay and a vascularized periosteal flap that allows for preservation of frontal sinus function. Objective The main objective of this article is to describe the technique for compartmentalization of the frontal sinus and demonstrate its efficacy and complication rate with an early patient series. Methods Our technique includes the following key components: harvesting of a pedicled periosteal flap, frontal sinus repair through a bifrontal craniotomy with minimal mucosa removal, ensuring the patency of the nasal frontal outflow tract, and separation of the brain from the frontal sinus with a dual layer of periosteum and allograft. All cases of frontal sinus repair using the compartmentalization technique at our institution were reviewed. Charts were reviewed for CSF leak, mucocele, and other complications. Results Twenty-three patients underwent the described frontal sinus repair technique 17 for tumor and 6 for trauma. There were no CSF leaks and no mucoceles. One patient experienced postoperative anemia and a "parameningeal reaction" that were managed with a short course of antibiotics. Conclusions Compartmentalization, due to its sinus preservation and low complication rate, represents a meaningful step forward in neurosurgical technique for open frontal sinus repair. However, long-term outcomes are necessary to fully evaluate risk of mucocele.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Miller
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, Kansas, United States
| | - Luke Weisbrod
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, Kansas, United States
| | - David Beahm
- Department of Otolaryngology, The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, Kansas, United States
| | - Roukoz Chamoun
- Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Kansas School of Medicine, Kansas City, Kansas, United States
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Bilateral Versus Unilateral Cranialization in the Management of a Breached Frontal Sinus. J Craniofac Surg 2020; 31:261-264. [PMID: 31794453 DOI: 10.1097/scs.0000000000006023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Frontal sinus breach during craniotomy may occur inadvertently or intentionally. Management of a breached frontal sinus is controversial as numerous operative techniques have been described. Frontal sinus breach may result in life-threatening complications, require additional surgeries, and increase the risk for long-term infectious sequelae. A literature review found a paucity of neurosurgical reports examining breached frontal sinus management or specific analyses of unilateral versus bilateral frontal sinus cranialization. OBJECTIVE A frontal sinus cranialization technique employed for patients involving frontal sinus breach and analyze outcomes managed with bilateral versus unilateral cranialization was presented in this study. METHODS A retrospective review of outcomes was performed using our Institutional Review Board-approved surgical case database between September 2012 and September 2018. RESULTS Thirty-three frontal sinus cranializations following frontal sinus breach were identified. Average follow-up time was 25 months. A statistically significant difference in postoperative infections was observed in patients with a history of previous cranial surgery who underwent unilateral compared to bilateral frontal sinus cranialization. CONCLUSION These results suggest surgeons performing craniotomy or consulted intraoperatively for suspected frontal sinus breach should have a high suspicion for breached frontal sinus and a low threshold for frontal sinus cranialization. Furthermore, when performing frontal sinus cranialization, surgeons should consider performing bilateral, instead of unilateral, cranialization in patients with a history of previous craniotomy as bilateral cranialization was shown to decrease the risk of postoperative infection.
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Linzey JR, Wilson TJ, Sullivan SE, Thompson BG, Pandey AS. Frontal Sinus Breach During Routine Frontal Craniotomy Significantly Increases Risk of Surgical Site Infection: 10-Year Retrospective Analysis. Neurosurgery 2018; 81:504-511. [PMID: 28327980 DOI: 10.1093/neuros/nyx046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Frontotemporal craniotomies are commonly performed for a variety of neurosurgical pathologies. Infections related to craniotomies cause significant morbidity. We hypothesized that the risk of cranial surgical site infections (SSIs) may be increased in patients whose frontal sinuses are breached during craniotomy. OBJECTIVE To compare the rate of cranial SSIs in patients undergoing frontotemporal craniotomies with and without frontal sinus breach (FSB). METHODS We performed a retrospective analysis of all patients undergoing frontotemporal craniotomies for the management of cerebral aneurysms from 2005 to 2014. This study included 862 patients undergoing 910 craniotomies. Primary outcome of interest was occurrence of a cranial SSI. Standard statistical methods were utilized to explore associations between a variety of variables including FSB, cranial SSI, and infections requiring reoperation. RESULTS Of the 910 craniotomies, 141 (15.5%) involved FSB. Of those involving FSB, 22 (15.6%) developed a cranial SSI, compared to only 56 of the 769 without FSB (7.3%; P = .001). Cranial SSI requiring reoperation was much more likely in patients with FSB compared to those without a breach (7.8% vs 1.6%; P < .001). In those presenting with cranial SSIs, epidural abscess formation was more common with FSB compared to no FSB (27.3% vs 5.4%; P = .006). In multivariate analysis, breach of the frontal sinus was significantly associated with cranial SSI (OR 2.16; 95% CI 1.24-3.78; P = .01) and reoperation (OR 4.20; 95% CI 1.66-10.65; P = .003). CONCLUSION Patients undergoing frontotemporal craniotomies are at significantly greater risk of serious cranial SSIs if the frontal sinus has been breached.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thomas J Wilson
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
| | | | | | - Aditya S Pandey
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan
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Current opinion in otolaryngology and head and neck surgery: frontal sinus fractures. Curr Opin Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 2018; 25:326-331. [PMID: 28504985 DOI: 10.1097/moo.0000000000000369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The purpose of this manuscript is to review the current literature regarding the management of frontal sinus fractures and offer the authors opinion on the current management of these traumatic injuries. We evaluate recently proposed management algorithms as well as novel surgical approaches reported within the last few years. RECENT FINDINGS Patient selection for sinus sparing treatment modalities is balanced between fracture severity, involved structures, and reliable patient surveillance. Minimally invasive, aesthetically favorable approaches grow in diversity for anterior table fractures. For fractures of the posterior sinus wall and nasofrontal outflow tract, the literature focuses on sinus sparing surgery, as well as better defining the patients in which obliteration and/or cranialization is appropriate. SUMMARY Lack of large patient cohorts and follow-up limits generalizability of frontal sinus fracture research, and the ability to develop national guidelines of management. Evidence-based literature shows growing support for conservative management and sinus preservation. Improvements in frontal sinus fracture classification schemes, surgical technique, and patient selection direct this treatment paradigm shift.
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Chandra SR, Zemplenyi KS. Issues in Pediatric Craniofacial Trauma. Facial Plast Surg Clin North Am 2017; 25:581-591. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fsc.2017.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Patel SA, Berens AM, Devarajan K, Whipple ME, Moe KS. Evaluation of a Minimally Disruptive Treatment Protocol for Frontal Sinus Fractures. JAMA FACIAL PLAST SU 2017; 19:225-231. [PMID: 28152148 DOI: 10.1001/jamafacial.2016.1769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Importance Despite common goals of frontal sinus fracture treatment (restoring forehead contour and creating a safe sinus), there remains significant variability in evaluation and treatment. Objective To describe our experience with a minimally disruptive treatment protocol for the treatment of frontal sinus fractures. Design, Setting, and Participants Analysis of prospectively collected data from 2010 through 2015 at a level 1 trauma center. All patients with frontal sinus fractures treated with our protocol from January 2010 to December 2015. Patients with poor follow-up and/or incomplete medical records were excluded from analysis. Main Outcomes and Measures Presence of an aerated frontal sinus and aesthetically acceptable forehead contour. Secondary outcome measures were complications related to frontal sinus fractures. Results A total of 39 patients were treated under our minimally disruptive protocol, and 25 patients were included in the study; 18 (72%) were male and 7 (28%) were female. Their ages ranged from 6 to 62 years. After review, 22 patients had both clinical and radiographic follow-up. No patients underwent immediate frontal sinus repair. Five of 22 patients underwent surgery for indications other than their frontal sinus fracture: 1 of 5 patients underwent immediate surgical repair due to bilateral LeFort fractures, and 4 of 5 underwent delayed surgery due to nasal polyps (1 patient), scar revision (1 patient), and concomitant LeFort fractures (2 patients). Two of 22 patients (9%) underwent frontal sinus repair after outpatient surveillance due to persistent cerebrospinal fluid leak (1 patient) and orbital roof fracture (1 patient). The remaining 20 patients were treated nonoperatively, and 19 of 20 (95%) had spontaneous improvement in opacification and/or contour deformity. Twelve of 20 patients (60%) had improvement or resolution in both. One patient had ongoing partial opacification and deformity at the 3-month follow-up but was asymptomatic and had bony contour that was aesthetically acceptable to the patient. There were no complications. The median of all follow-up was 3 months. Conclusions and Relevance Frontal sinus fractures treated nonoperatively had a high rate of spontaneous ventilation and bony autoreduction with aesthetically acceptable frontal bone remodeling. There were no complications in the nonoperative group. The initial results of this study support further study of the safety and efficacy of a minimally disruptive protocol for frontal sinus fractures. Level of Evidence 4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sapna A Patel
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle
| | - Angelique M Berens
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle
| | | | - Mark E Whipple
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle
| | - Kris S Moe
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle
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Abstract
The frontal bone serves a protective role, representing the transition between the facial skeleton and the cranium. Within its enclosure, the frontal sinus lies adjacent to many important intracranial structures, and injury to this region has severe complications if not properly managed. Historically, the goals of frontal sinus fracture management have been to best prevent intracranial complications with invasive procedures, but a recent shift favoring conservative management now aims to preserve the form and function of the frontal sinus and its outflow tract. With the advancement of endoscopic techniques and the development of new technologies, many alternatives to aggressive surgical management are available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Schultz
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Tara L Braun
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
| | - Tuan A Truong
- Division of Plastic Surgery, Michael E. DeBakey Department of Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Sinusitis is a common disorder associated with significant patient symptomatology that adversely affects quality of life. Sinusitis can cause further morbidity and mortality through its impact on comorbid disorders, progression of inflammation, and extension of infection. OBJECTIVE This review highlights common complications of acute bacterial rhinosinusitis (ABRS) and chronic rhinosinusitis (CRS). RESULTS ABRS is complicated by orbital infections, such as pre- or postseptal cellulitis, and by intracranial infections, including abscesses of the epidural and subdural spaces. CRS can contribute to asthma, sleep disordered breathing, and smell disorders. CRS can be complicated by development of allergic fungal rhinosinusitis or deformity of surrounding bony structures. Fungal complications contribute to morbidity and mortality. CONCLUSION Complications of ABRS, although relatively rare, can cause significant morbidity and mortality, and must be promptly recognized. CRS commonly complicates or drives comorbid diseases, which adversely impacts quality of life. Treatment of these complications often requires coordinated multidisciplinary care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara F Carr
- Department of Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
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