Self-Nanoemulsifying Lyophilized Tablets for Flash Oral Transmucosal Delivery of Vitamin K: Development and Clinical Evaluation

Fabrication, optimization, and evaluation of lyophilized lacidipine-loaded fatty-based nanovesicles as orally fast disintegrating sponge delivery system

Lacidipine (LCD) is a potent antihypertensive agent. Fatty-based nanovesicles (FNVs) were designed to improve LCD low solubility and bioavailability. LCD-FNVs were formulated according to different proportions of cetyl alcohol, cremophor®RH40, and oleic acid adopting Box-Behnken Design. The optimized LCD-FNVs, composed of cetyl alcohol 48.4 mg, cremophor®RH40 120 mg, and oleic acid 40 mg, showed minimum vesicle size (124.8 nm), maximum entrapment efficiency % (91.04 %) and zeta potential (-36.3 mV). The optimized FNVs were then used to formulate the lyophilized orally fast-disintegrating sponge (LY-OFDS). The LY-OFDS had a very short disintegration time (58 sec), remarkably high % drug release (100 % after 15 mins), and increased the drug transbuccal permeation by over 9.5-fold compared to the drug suspension. In-vivo evaluation of antihypertensive activity in rats showed that the LY-OFDS reduced blood pressure immediately after 5 min and reached normal blood pressure 4.5-fold faster than the marketed oral tablets. In the In-vivo pharmacokinetic study in rabbits, the LY-OFDS showed 4.7-fold higher bioavailability compared with the marketed oral tablet. In conclusion, the LY-OFDS loaded with LCD-FNVs is a safe, and non-invasive approach that can deliver LCD effectively to the blood circulation via the buccal mucosa giving superior immediate capabilities of lowering high blood pressure and increasing the drug bioavailability.

Enhancing the Antiproliferative Activity of Perillyl Alcohol against Glioblastoma Cell Lines through Synergistic Formulation with Natural Oils

BACKGROUND

Due to its volatility, photostability, and gastrointestinal toxicity, Perillyl Alcohol (POH), a monoterpenoid component of various plant species, is a chemotherapeutic drug with insufficient efficacy. Many naturally occurring bioactive compounds have well-known antiproliferative properties, including sefsol, jojoba, tea tree, and moringa oils.

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to develop an oil-based Self Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System (SNEDDS) using tween 80 as the surfactant and Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO) or Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 400 as the cosurfactant; the oils were used in a range of 10-20% to boost POH's anticancer efficacy.

METHODS

The formulations' size, charge, and impact on the viability of glioma cell lines, ANGM-CSS and A172, were evaluated.

RESULTS

The developed SNEDDS formulations ranged from 3 nm to 362 nm in size, with electronegative surface charges between 5.05 and 17.0 mV and polydispersity indices between 0.3 and 1.0.

CONCLUSION

The findings indicated that the antiproliferative effect of POH-loaded Nanoemulsion (NE) could be used as a possible anticancer therapy for glioblastoma in vitro, particularly when paired with the tested natural oils. Before asserting that this delivery technique is appropriate for glioblastoma therapy, additional in vitro and in vivo investigations are required.

Nano-engineered vitamins as a potential epigenetic modifier against environmental air pollutants

Air pollution has emerged as a serious threat to human health due to close association with spectrum of chronic ailments including cardiovascular disorders, respiratory diseases, nervous system dysfunctions, diabetes and cancer. Exposure to air-borne pollutants along with poor eating behaviours and inferior dietary quality irreversibly impacts epigenomic landscape, leading to aberrant transcriptional control of gene expression which is central to patho-physiology of non-communicable diseases. It is assumed that nutriepigenomic interventions such as vitamins can control such adverse effects through their immediate action on mitochondrial epigenomic-axis. Importantly, the exhaustive clinical utility of vitamins-interceded epigenetic synchronization is not well characterized. Therefore, improving the current limitations linked to stability and bioavailability issues in vitamin formulations is highly warranted. The present review not only sums up the available data on the role of vitamins as potential epigenetic modifiers but also discusses the importance of nano-engineered vitamins as potential epidrugs for dietary and pharmacological intervention to mitigate the long-term effects of air pollution toxicity.

Rapid oral transmucosal delivery of zaleplon-lavender oil utilizing self-nanoemulsifying lyophilized tablets technology: development, optimization and pharmacokinetic evaluation

Based on the administration convenience, transmucosal buccal drug delivery allows special strength points over peroral routes for systemic delivery. It could achieve local or systemic effect and boost drugs’ bioavailability for agents with first pass metabolism. The current study aimed to manufacture and optimize a lavender oil–based nanoemulsion loaded with zaleplon and incorporate it into fast-disintegrating tablets to promote its dissolution and oral bioavailability via oral mucosa. Zaleplon-loaded nanoemulsions were devised with various levels of lavender oil (10% to 25%), the surfactant Sorbeth-20 (35% to 65%), and the co-surfactant HCO-60 (20% to 40%); the extreme vertices mixture statistical design was adopted. The droplet size and drug-loading efficiency were the evaluated. The optimal formulation was transformed into self-nanoemulsified lyophilized tablets (ZP-LV-SNELTs), which were tested for their uniformity of content, friability, and disintegration time with in-vitro release. Finally, the pharmacokinetic parameters of the ZP-LV-SNELTs were determined and compared with those of marketed formulations. The optimal nanoemulsion had a droplet size of 87 nm and drug-loading capacity of 185 mg/mL. ZP-LV-SNELTs exhibited acceptable friability and weight uniformity and a short disintegration time. The in-vitro release of ZP-LV-SNELTs was 17 times faster than that of the marketed tablet. Moreover, the optimal ZP-LV-SNELTs increased the bioavailability of zaleplon in rabbits by 1.6-fold compared with the commercial tablets. Hence, this investigation revealed that ZP-LV-SNELTs delivered zaleplon with enhanced solubility, a fast release, and boosted bioavailability thru oral mucosa which provided a favorable route for drug administration which is suggested to be clinically investigated in future studies

Influences of Glimepiride Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery System Loaded Liquisolid Tablets on the Hypoglycemic Activity and Pancreatic Histopathological Changes in Streptozotocin-Induced Hyperglycemic Rats

The development of an oral anti-diabetic medication characterized by enhanced hypoglycemic activity is in high demand. The goal was to study the hypoglycemic activity and pancreatic histopathology after the black-seed-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) loaded with glimepiride liquisolid tablets to diabetic rats. The solubility of glimepiride in various vehicles was investigated. An optimization SNEDDS formulation was developed using a mixture of the experimental design approach. Box-Behnken design (BBD) was used to develop glimepiride liquisolid tablets utilizing Avicel PH 101 and Neusilin as a carrier mixture and FujiSil as a coating material. The quality attributes of the prepared tablets were assessed. Following the administration of the optimized tablets to diabetic rats, the pharmacodynamics and histopathological changes were investigated and compared to a commercial drug product. Results revealed that the optimized SNEDDS formulation that contains 15.43% w/w black seed oil, 40% w/w Tween 80, and 44.57% w/w Polyethylene glycol 400 showed an average droplet size of 34.64 ± 2.01 nm and a drug load of 36.67 ± 3.13 mg/mL. The optimized tablet formulation contained 0.31% Avicel in the carrier mixture, a 14.99 excipient ratio, and 8% superdisintegrant. Pre- and post-compression properties were satisfactory, and the optimized glimepiride liquisolid tablet showed a two-fold increase in dissolution. The optimized tablet demonstrated superior pharmacodynamics. The pancreatic tissues of the group treated with the optimized tablet displayed normal histological structure. The obtained data offered a commercially viable alternative for manufacturing solid dosage forms containing water-insoluble drugs, but additional clinical research is required.

Pairing 3D-Printing with Nanotechnology to Manage Metabolic Syndrome

Introduction

This work was aimed to develop a Curcuma oil-based self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) 3D-printed polypills containing glimepiride (GMD) and rosuvastatin (RSV) for treatment of dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes as a model for metabolic syndrome (MS).

Methods

Compartmentalized 3D printed polypills were prepared and studied in streptozotocin/poloxamer induced diabetic/dyslipidemic rats. The pharmacokinetic parameters of GMD and RSV in the prepared polypills were evaluated. Blood glucose level, lipid profile, antioxidant, and biochemical markers activities were investigated. Also, histopathological examination of the liver and pancreas was carried out. The atherosclerotic index, the area of islets of Langerhans, and liver steatosis lesion scores were calculated.

Results

The developed SNEDDS-loaded GMD/RSV polypills showed acceptable quality control characteristics with a high relative bioavailability of 217.16% and 224.28% for GMD and RSV, respectively, when compared with the corresponding non-SNEDDS pills. The prepared polypills showed dramatic lowering in blood glucose levels and substantial improvement in lipid profile and hepatic serum biomarkers as well as remarkable decrease in serum antioxidants in response to Poloxamer 407 intoxication. The prepared polypills decreased the risk of atherosclerosis and coronary disease by boosting the level of high-density lipoprotein and lowering both triglyceride and low-density lipoprotein. Microscopic examination showed normal hepatic sinusoids and high protection level with less detectable steatosis in the examined hepatocytes. Normal size pancreatic islets with apparently normal exocrine acini and pancreatic duct were also noticed.

Conclusion

This formulation strategy clearly shows the potential of the developed polypills in personalized medicine for treatment of patients with MS.

Development of Multi-Compartment 3D-Printed Tablets Loaded with Self-Nanoemulsified Formulations of Various Drugs: A New Strategy for Personalized Medicine

This work aimed to develop a three-dimensional printed (3DP) tablet containing glimepiride (GLMP) and/or rosuvastatin (RSV) for treatment of dyslipidemia in patients with diabetes. Curcumin oil was extracted from the dried rhizomes of Curcuma longa and utilized to develop a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS). Screening mixture experimental design was conducted to develop SNEDDS formulation with a minimum droplet size. Five different semi-solid pastes were prepared and rheologically characterized. The prepared pastes were used to develop 3DP tablets using extrusion printing. The quality attributes of the 3DP tablets were evaluated. A non-compartmental extravascular pharmacokinetic model was implemented to investigate the in vivo behavior of the prepared tablets and the studied marketed products. The optimized SNEDDS, of a 94.43 ± 3.55 nm droplet size, was found to contain 15%, 75%, and 10% of oil, polyethylene glycol 400, and tween 80, respectively. The prepared pastes revealed a shear-thinning of pseudoplastic flow behavior. Flat-faced round tablets of 15 mm diameter and 5.6–11.2 mm thickness were successfully printed and illustrated good criteria for friability, weight variation, and content uniformity. Drug release was superior from SNEDDS-based tablets when compared to non-SNEDDS tablets. Scanning electron microscopy study of the 3DP tablets revealed a semi-porous surface that exhibited some curvature with the appearance of tortuosity and a gel porous-like structure of the inner section. GLMP and RSV demonstrated relative bioavailability of 159.50% and 245.16%, respectively. Accordingly, the developed 3DP tablets could be considered as a promising combined oral drug therapy used in treatment of metabolic disorders. However, clinical studies are needed to investigate their efficacy and safety.

Quality-by-Design-Based Development of a Voxelotor Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug-Delivery System with Improved Biopharmaceutical Attributes

Low aqueous solubility and poor oral bioavailability are limiting factors in the oral delivery of voxelotor, an antisickling agent. To overcome these limitations, a voxelotor self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system was developed. Various oils, surfactants, and cosurfactants were screened for their solubilization potential for the drug. The area of nanoemulsification was identified using a ternary phase diagram. An experimental mixture design and a desirability function were applied to select SNEDDSs that contain a maximum amount of lipids and a minimum amount of surfactant, and that possess optimal emulsification properties (i.e., droplet sizes, polydispersity index (PDI), emulsification time, and transmittance percentage). The optimized SNEDDS formulation was evaluated for the self-emulsifying time (32 s), droplet size (35 nm), and zeta potential (−8 mV). In vitro dissolution studies indicated a 3.1-fold improvement in drug solubility from the optimized SNEDDS over pure drug powder. After 60 min of in vitro lipolysis, 88% of the voxelotor loaded in the SNEDDS remained in the aqueous phase. Cytotoxicity evaluation, using Caco-2 cells, indicated the safety of the formulation at 0.9 mg/mL. The transport of the voxelotor SNEDDS across Caco-2 monolayers was significantly enhanced compared to that of the free drug. Compared to the drug suspension, the developed SNEDDS enhanced the oral bioavailability (1.7-fold) of voxelotor in rats. The results suggest that further development of SNEDDSs for the oral delivery of voxelotor is needed.

Lyophilized Composite Loaded with Meloxicam-Peppermint oil Nanoemulsion for Periodontal Pain

Maintaining oral health helps to prevent periodontal inflammation and pain, which can progress into more detrimental issues if left untreated. Meloxicam (MX) is a commonly used analgesic for periodontal pain, but it can have adverse gastrointestinal effects and poor solubility. Therefore, this study aimed to enhance the solubility of MX by developing a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS). Considering the anti-ulcer activity of peppermint oil (PO), it was added in a mixture with medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) to the MX-loaded SNEDDS formulation (MX-PO-SNEDDS). After optimization, MX-PO-SNEDDS exhibited a PO:MCT ratio of 1.78:1, surfactant mixture HLB value of 14, and MX:oil mix ratio of 1:15, a particle size of 47 ± 3 nm, stability index of 85 ± 4%, ex vivo J_ss of 4 ± 0.6 μg/cm²min, and ulcer index of 1 ± 0.25 %. Then, orally flash disintegrating lyophilized composites (MX-SNELCs) were prepared using the optimized MX-PO-SNEDDs. Results reveal that MX-SNELCs had a wetting time of 4 ± 1 s and disintegration time of 3 ± 1 s with a high in vitro MX release of 91% by the end of 60 min. The results of pharmacokinetic studies in human volunteers further demonstrated that, compared to a marketed MX tablets, MX-SNELCs provided a higher C_max, T_max, and AUC and a relatively greater bioavailability of 152.97 %. The successfully developed MX-SNELCs were found to be a better alternative than the conventional tablet dosage form, thus indicating their potential for further development in a clinically acceptable strategy for managing periodontal pain.

Mucoadhesive Delivery System: A Smart Way to Improve Bioavailability of Nutraceuticals

The conventional oral administration of many nutraceuticals exhibits poor oral bioavailability due to the harsh gastric conditions and first-pass metabolism. Oral mucosa has been recognized as a potential site for the delivery of therapeutic compounds. The mucoadhesive formulation can adhere to the mucosal membrane through various interaction mechanisms and enhance the retention and permeability of bioactive compounds. Absorption of bioactive compounds from the mucosa can improve bioavailability, as this route bypasses the hepatic first-pass metabolism and transit through the gastrointestinal tract. The mucosal administration is convenient, simple to access, and reported for increasing the bioactive concentration in plasma. Many mucoadhesive polymers, emulsifiers, thickeners used for the pharmaceutical formulation are accepted in the food sector. Introducing mucoadhesive formulations specific to the nutraceutical sector will be a game-changer as we are still looking for different ways to improve the bioavailability of many bioactive compounds. This article describes the overview of buccal mucosa, the concept of mucoadhesion and related theories, and different techniques of mucoadhesive formulations. Finally, the classification of mucoadhesive polymers and the mucoadhesive systems designed for the effective delivery of bioactive compounds are presented.

Optimization of Thymoquinone-Loaded Self-Nanoemulsion for Management of Indomethacin-Induced Ulcer

To improve the water solubility of thymoquinone (TQ), a major constituent of Nigella sativa seed oil, a TQ-loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) was prepared. The SNEDDS formulation was optimized using almond oil (AO) (Oil; X1), tween 80 (surfactant; X2) and polyethylene glycol 200 (PEG 200) (cosurfactant; X3) compounds as independent variables. The results showed that the globule size ranged from 65 to 320 nm. In addition, a strong agreement was reached between the system estimation and the experimental values of globule size. To evaluate the gastroprotective effect of optimized TQ-loaded SNEDDS against indomethacin (Indo.)-induced gastric ulcers in comparison with non-emulsified TQ, the ulcer index and histopathological changes were estimated. Optimized TQ-loaded SNEDDS showed improved gastroprotective activity against Indo.-induced ulcers relative to the non-emulsified TQ. In addition, the gastroprotective index was improved by 2-fold in TQ-loaded SNEDDS as compared to non-emulsified TQ. This is attributed to the strong antioxidant and the cytoprotective activities of the TQ. These results demonstrate enhancement of the efficacy of TQ through the optimized SNEDDS.

Formulation and Applications of Lipid-Based Nanovehicles: Spotlight on Self-emulsifying Systems

The drug delivery investigation field is continuously widened and adapted to overcome many factors such as poor drug solubility, absorption, rapid metabolism, the variability of drug plasma levels, cellular efflux and many others. Due to resemblance to body constituents and their biocompatibility, lipids offer a promising scheme for poorly water-soluble and lipophilic drugs. Various nanoparticles including vesicular systems, lipid particulate systems, and emulsion systems provide some unique benefits as pharmaceutical carriers in drug and biomolecules delivery systems. Nowadays synthesis is directed toward simple, costless techniques, therefore, self-emulsifying systems have gained superiority over the other carriers. Self nano-emulsifying systems composed of oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant emulsified upon contact with an aqueous medium, has been widely exploited. This review attempts to provide a comprehensive interpretation of different types of lipid-based carriers emphasizing on the self-nanoemulsifying system, why it is gaining interest, formulation, composition, and applications.

Strategies and formulations of freeze-dried tablets for controlled drug delivery

The freeze-drying process has been particularly attractive for preparing tablets for controlled drug release. Although traditional methods, such as granulation or direct compression methods, have been used in various studies to produce tablets with controlled release, freeze-drying processes have been utilized in certain circumstances due to their distinct advantages. However, overall, further development of these strategies, which started with early studies on orally disintegrating tablets, is still necessary. In this review, the incorporation of different formulations into freeze-dried tablets will be discussed. Moreover, the use of excipients, freeze-drying conditions, formulation reconstitution and tablet structure for optimizing the performance of freeze-dried tablets will be reported, including strategies with nanoformulations and natural materials. Generally, this discussion with potential approaches will benefit further development of freeze-dried tablets containing drugs in the pharmaceutical industry.

Tadalafil-Loaded Limonene-Based Orodispersible Tablets: Formulation, in vitro Characterization and in vivo Appraisal of Gastroprotective Activity

Background

Gastric ulcer is a prevalent disease with various etiologies, including non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and alcohol consumption. This study aimed to explore the dual gastric protection effect of tadalafil and limonene as a self-nanoemulsifying system (SNES)-based orodispersible tablets.

Methods

Tadalafil-loaded limonene-based SNES was prepared, and the optimum formula was characterized in terms of particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP) then loaded on various porous carriers to formulate lyophilized orodispersible tablets (ODTs). The ODTs were evaluated via determining hardness, friability, content uniformity, wetting, and disintegration time. The selected ODT was examined for its gastric ulcer protective effect against alcohol-induced ulcers in rat model. Ulcer score and ulcer index were computed for rats stomachs that were inspected macroscopically and histopathologically.

Results

The prepared SNES had droplet size of 104 nm, polydispersity index of 0.2, and zeta potential of −15.4 mV. From the different ODTs formulated, the formula with superior wetting time: 23.67 s, outstanding disintegration time: 28 s, accepted hardness value: 3.11 kg/cm² and friability: 0.6% was designated. A significant gastroprotective effect of the unloaded and tadalafil-loaded ODTs was recognized compared to the omeprazole pre-treated group. Moreover, the histopathological analysis displayed very mild inflammation in the limonene-based ODTs group and intact structure in the tadalafil-loaded pre-treated animals.

Conclusion

Limonene gastroprotective effect functioned along with tadalafil in the form of SNES-incorporated ODTs could serve as a promising revenue for better efficacy in gastric ulcer prevention.

Self-Nano-Emulsifying Drug-Delivery Systems: From the Development to the Current Applications and Challenges in Oral Drug Delivery

Approximately one third of newly discovered drug molecules show insufficient water solubility and therefore low oral bio-availability. Self-nano-emulsifying drug-delivery systems (SNEDDSs) are one of the emerging strategies developed to tackle the issues associated with their oral delivery. SNEDDSs are composed of an oil phase, surfactant, and cosurfactant or cosolvent. SNEDDSs characteristics, their ability to dissolve a drug, and in vivo considerations are determinant factors in the choice of SNEDDSs excipients. A SNEDDS formulation can be optimized through phase diagram approach or statistical design of experiments. The characterization of SNEDDSs includes multiple orthogonal methods required to fully control SNEDDS manufacture, stability, and biological fate. Encapsulating a drug in SNEDDSs can lead to increased solubilization, stability in the gastro-intestinal tract, and absorption, resulting in enhanced bio-availability. The transformation of liquid SNEDDSs into solid dosage forms has been shown to increase the stability and patient compliance. Supersaturated, mucus-permeating, and targeted SNEDDSs can be developed to increase efficacy and patient compliance. Self-emulsification approach has been successful in oral drug delivery. The present review gives an insight of SNEDDSs for the oral administration of both lipophilic and hydrophilic compounds from the experimental bench to marketed products.

Clinical Pharmacokinetic Evaluation of Optimized Liquisolid Tablets as a Potential Therapy for Male Sexual Dysfunction

The study aimed at developing a liquisolid tablet (LST) containing tadalafil (TDL) and dapoxetine (DPX) with improved bioavailability as a potential therapy for male sexual dysfunction. A mixture of nonvolatile solvents, namely PEG 200 and Labrasol®, was utilized to prepare LSTs that were assessed for their quality characteristics. The Box–Behnken design (BBD) was employed to statistically explore the effect of the formulation factors on the quality attributes of LSTs. Furthermore, an in vivo pharmacokinetic study was carried out for the optimized LST in comparison with the marketed tablets on healthy human volunteers. The optimized LST revealed acceptable quality limits with enhanced dissolution for both APIs. The pharmacokinetic parameters after oral administration of the optimized LST indicated that the Cmax of TDL in LSTs was 122.61 ng/mL within 2h compared to the marketed tablets, which reached 91.72 ng/mL after 3 h, indicating the faster onset of action. The AUC was improved for TDL in LST (4484.953 vs. 2994.611 ng/mL∙h in the marketed tablet) and DPX in LST (919.633 vs. 794.699 ng/mL∙h in the marketed tablet). This enhancement in bioavailability potentially minimizes the associated side effects and improves the treatment of male sexual dysfunction, particularly for diabetic patients.

Self-Nanoemulsifying System Loaded with Sildenafil Citrate and Incorporated within Oral Lyophilized Flash Tablets: Preparation, Optimization, and In Vivo Evaluation

Sildenafil citrate is a drug used throughout the world primarily to treat erectile dysfunction. Several problems with the commercially available product decrease its efficacy, such as limited solubility, delayed onset of action, and low bioavailability with a large variability in the absorption profile. This study aimed to develop an optimized self-nanoemulsifying lyophilized tablet for the drug to conquer the foresaid problems. Sildenafil solubility in various surfactants, oils, and cosurfactants was attempted. An optimized formulation of a loaded self-nanoemulsion with a small droplet size was developed by applying a special cubic model of the mixture design. Sixteen formulations were prepared and characterized for droplet size. On the basis of solubility studies, a clove oil/oleic acid mixture, polysorbate 20 (Tween 20), and propylene glycol were selected as the proposed oil, surfactant, and cosurfactant, respectively. On the basis of desirability, an optimized sildenafil citrate-loaded self-nanoemulsifying delivery system containing 10% of the oil mixture, 60% of the surfactant, and 30% of the cosurfactant had a droplet size of 65 nm. Subsequently, the tablet form was fabricated with optimum ratios of 0.4% fumed silica, 0.1% hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, and 0.4% sodium starch glycolate. This formula showed satisfactory results in both disintegration and dissolution studies. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies indicated a higher bioavailability (1.44 times) and rapid absorption profile for the study’s tablets compared with commercially available tablets. In conclusion, highly bioavailable oral lyophilized flash tablets of sildenafil were successfully prepared. They will be a good alternative to the conventional solid-dosage form.

A Non-Lipolysis Nanoemulsion Improved Oral Bioavailability by Reducing the First-Pass Metabolism of Raloxifene, and Related Absorption Mechanisms Being Studied

Objective

A non-lipolysis nanoemulsion (NNE) was designed to reduce the first-pass metabolism of raloxifene (RAL) by intestinal UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) for increasing the oral absorption of RAL, coupled with in vitro and in vivo studies.

Methods

In vitro stability of NNE was evaluated by lipolysis and the UGT metabolism system. The oral bioavailability of NNE was studied in rats and pigs. Finally, the absorption mechanisms of NNE were investigated by in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) in rats, Madin-Darby canine kidney (MDCK) cells model, and lymphatic blocking model.

Results

The pre-NNE consisted of isopropyl palmitate, linoleic acid, Cremophor RH40, and ethanol in a weight ratio of 3.33:1.67:3:2. Compared to lipolysis nanoemulsion of RAL (RAL-LNE), the RAL-NNE was more stable in in vitro gastrointestinal buffers, lipolysis, and UGT metabolism system (p < 0.05). The oral bioavailability was significantly improved by the NNE (203.30%) and the LNE (205.89%) relative to the suspension group in rats. However, 541.28% relative bioavailability was achieved in pigs after oral NNE intake compared to the suspension and had two-fold greater bioavailability than the LNE (p < 0.05). The RAL-NNE was mainly absorbed in the jejunum and had high permeability at the intestine of rats. The results of both SPIP and MDCK cell models demonstrated that the RAL-NNE was absorbed via endocytosis mediated by caveolin and clathrin. The other absorption route, the lymphatic transport (cycloheximide as blocking agent), was significantly improved by the NNE compared with the LNE (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

A NNE was successfully developed to reduce the first-pass metabolism of RAL in the intestine and enhance its lymphatic transport, thereby improving the oral bioavailability. Altogether, NNE is a promising carrier for the oral delivery of drugs with significant first-pass metabolism.

Rosuvastatin lyophilized tablets loaded with flexible chitosomes for improved drug bioavailability, anti-hyperlipidemic and anti-oxidant activity

Rosuvastatin is a hypolipidemic drug of limited oral bioavailability. The aim was to develop rosuvastatin flexible chitosomes and loading into a pullulan-based tablet to improve the bioavailability and maximize the antihyperlipidemic and antioxidant activities. Chitosomes nanoparticles were developed and characterized. Pullulan-based lyophilized fast dissolving tablets were developed and evaluated. The tablets' outer and inner structures were morphologically investigated. In vivo disintegration of the prepared tablets was studied in healthy human volunteers. The pharmacokinetics, antihyperlipidemic, antioxidant, and biochemical markers activities were conducted after administration of the tablets into male Wister rats. Liver histopathology was also investigated. The prepared chitosomes illustrated an average particle size of 342.22 ± 2.90 nm, a zeta potential value of +28.87 ± 1.39 mV and a drug entrapment efficiency of 94.59 ± 1.62%. The developed tablets showed an acceptable quality control characteristics and in vivo disintegration time of 1.48 ± 0.439 min. Scanning electron microscopy revealed distinct porous surface and sponge-like inner structure. The chitosomes based tablets demonstrated higher relative bioavailability by more than 30% and 36% when compared with the corresponding pure rosuvastatin and the marketed drug tablets, respectively. Moreover, the chitosomes based tablets showed a significant improvement in the hepatic serum biomarkers and a dramatic decrease in the serum antioxidants in response to Poloxamer 407 intoxication. The prepared tablets did not exhibit marked histopathological changes in the hepatic tissues. Accordingly, the pullan-based lyophilized fast-dissolving tablets loaded with chitosomes nanoparticles could be considered as a promising drug formulation for enhancing rosuvastatin bioavailability and pharmacodynamics activity.

Enhancing the Hypolipidemic Effect of Simvastatin in Poloxamer-Induced Hyperlipidemic Rats via Liquisolid Approach: Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation

This study aimed to enhance the dissolution of simvastatin (SMV) through its formulation in liquisolid tablets (LSTs) to improve its bioavailability and hypolipidemic activity after oral administration. SMV-LSTs were optimized using Box-Behnken design to maximize the rate and extent of SMV dissolution. The optimized SMV-LST was evaluated for pharmacokinetic parameters and potential hypolipidemic activity on induced hyperlipidemic rats. The dissolution parameters revealed a shortening of mean dissolution time from 10.99 to 6.82 min, increasing of dissolution rate during the first 10 min from 1253.15 to 1667.31 μg/min, and enhancing of dissolution efficiency after 60 min from 71.92 to 86.93% for SMV-LSTs versus the commercial SMV tablets. The obtained data reflected an improvement in the relative bioavailability of SMV with 148.232% which was confirmed by the significant reduction of the levels of circulating total cholesterol, triglycerides that reached the normal level after 12 h. In particular, the optimized SMV-LSTs reduced serum low-density lipoproteins (LDL) by 44.6% which was significantly different from the commercial SMV tablets. In contrast, the level of serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL) was significantly augmented after 4 h in rats treated with the optimized SMV-LSTs by 47.6%. Finally, the optimized SMV-LSTs showed a significant lower atherosclerotic index value which could maximize its potential in decreasing the risk of coronary disease and atherosclerosis. Overall enhancement in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in comparison with the commercial tablets confers the potential of the liquisolid approach as a promising alternative for improved oral bioavailability, hypolipidemic, and cardioprotective effects of SMV. Graphical abstract.

Regulation of Autophagy Progress via Lysosomal Depletion by Fluvastatin Nanoparticle Treatment in Breast Cancer Cells

Fluvastatin (FLV) is a statin family member that may play a role in modulating a variety of medical disorders such as atherosclerosis and breast cancer. The present study addresses the ability of FLV to modulate the cellular immune response and provides a new nanosized FLV formula (self-nanoemulsifying delivery system, SNED) potentially more effective for suppression of breast cancer development. We monitored autophagic machinery through the expression of microtubule-associated protein 1A/1B-light chain 3 (LC3I/II). Lysosomal activity upon treatment was evaluated by mRNA and protein expression of lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1). Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling and its association with proinflammatory cytokine secretion were assessed in treated cells. Autophagosome formation was significantly increased in cells that were pretreated with FLV-SNED in comparison to FLV-treated cells. Activation of autophagy was accompanied with arrest of LAMP-1 expression, which correlates with lysosomal activity. Simultaneously, both FLV and FLV-SNED activated MAPK signaling and modified interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α levels in treated cells. These findings indicate that FLV reduces cell viability via depletion of lysosomal activities along with accumulation of autophagosomes leading to disturbance of autophagosome-lysosomal fusion in treated cells. Furthermore, our data reveal the effectiveness of both FLV agents in the modulation of proinflammatory cytokine secretion from treated cells via regulation of MAPK signaling cascades and indicate that FLV-SNED is more efficient than FLV. This study provides new insights into how FLV regulates breast cancer cell viability via modulation of AMPK-mTOR and ERK-mTOR signaling, and through autophagosome formation accompanied by lysosomal degradation.

Investigating the Potential of Transmucosal Delivery of Febuxostat from Oral Lyophilized Tablets Loaded with a Self-Nanoemulsifying Delivery System

Gout is the most familiar inflammatory arthritis condition caused by the elevation of uric acid in the bloodstream. Febuxostat (FBX) is the latest drug approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) for the treatment of gout and hyperuricemia. FBX is characterized by low solubility resulting in poor gastrointestinal bioavailability. This study aimed at improving the oral bioavailability of FBX by its incorporation into self-nanoemulsifying delivery systems (SNEDS) with minimum globule size and maximum stability index. The SNEDS-incorporated FBX was loaded into a carrier substrate with a large surface area and lyophilized with other excipients to produce a fluffy, porous-like structure tablet for the transmucosal delivery of FBX. The solubility of FBX was studied in various oils, surfactants, and cosurfactants. Extreme vertices design was utilized to optimize FBX-SNEDS, and subsequently loaded into lyophilized tablets along with suitable excipients. The percentages of the main tablet excipients were optimized using a Box–Behnken design to develop self-nanoemulsifying lyophilized tablets (SNELTs) with minimum disintegration time and maximum drug release. The pharmacokinetics parameters of the optimized FBX-SNELTs were tested in healthy human volunteers in comparison with the marketed FBX tablets. The results revealed that the optimized FBX-SNELTs increased the maximum plasma concentration (C_max) and decreased the time to reach C_max (T_max) with a large area under the curve (AUC) as a result of the enhanced relative oral bioavailability of 146.4%. The significant enhancement of FBX bioavailability is expected to lead to reduced side effects and frequency of administration during the treatment of gout.

Omega-3 Self-Nanoemulsion Role in Gastroprotection against Indomethacin-Induced Gastric Injury in Rats

Peptic ulcer disease is an injury of the alimentary tract that leads to a mucosal defect reaching the submucosa. This study aimed to formulate and optimize omega-3 oil as a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) to achieve oil dispersion in the nano-range in the stomach to augment omega-3 oil gastric ulcer protection efficacy. Three SNEDDS components were selected as the design factors: the concentrations of the oil omega-3 (X1, 10-30%), the surfactant tween 20 and Kolliphor mixture (X2, 20-40%), and the cosurfactant transcutol (X3, 40-60%). The mixture experimental design proposed twenty-three formulations with varying omega-3 SNEDDS formulation component percentages. The optimized omega-3 SNEDDS formula was investigated for gastric ulcer protective effects by evaluating the ulcer index and by the determination of gastric mucosa oxidative stress parameters. Results revealed that optimized omega-3-SNEDDS achieved significant improvement in the gastric ulcer index in comparison with pure omega-3 oil. Histopathological findings confirmed the protective effect of the formulated optimized omega-3 SNEDDS in comparison with omega-3 oil. These findings suggest that formulation of omega-3 in the form of a SNEDDS would be more effective in gastric ulcer protection than the administration of omega-3 as a crude oil.

Development of an optimized febuxostat self-nanoemulsified loaded transdermal film: in-vitro, ex-vivo and in-vivo evaluation

Febuxostat (FBX) is used to treat gout and chronic hyperuricemia. However, its bioavailability is moderate (49%) as a result of low solubility and first-pass metabolism. Therefore, the aim of our study is to improve FBX bioavailability by enhancement its solubility using self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) technique in the form of transdermal film to avoid hepatic metabolism. To accomplish this goal, Eight SNEDDS formulae were prepared according to a three-factor, two-level D-Optimal mixture design to evaluate the effect of different ratios of the Lemon oil (X1), the surfactant Tween-20 (X2), and the co-surfactant PEG-400 (X3) on the globule size in order to reach smallest globular size. Results revealed that SNEDDS globule size ranged from 177 to 454 nm. The optimized formula consisted of 20% oil, 40% surfactant and 40% co-surfactant. Diffusion study showed improved enhancement in skin permeation that was confirmed by imaging using fluorescence microscope. In vivo plasma data showed significant (p < 0.05) difference in FBX plasma levels and pharmacokinetic parameters when compared with raw FBX loaded film. In conclusion, FBX-SNEDDS loaded transdermal film could be a successful way to improve solubility and skin permeability that would lead to improvement in patient's compliance.

Attenuation of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia by Optimized Tadalafil Loaded Pumpkin Seed Oil-Based Self Nanoemulsion: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation

The FDA has approved tadalafil (TDL) for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)-associated symptoms. Pumpkin seed oil (PSO) has shown promise for the relief of prostatitis-related lower urinary tract symptoms. The aim was to improve TDL delivery to the prostate and assess the combined effect of TDL with a PSO-based formula in the management of BPH. PSO, Tween 80, and polyethylene glycol 200 were selected for the optimization of self nano-emulsified drug delivery system (SNEDDS). The formed vesicles were assessed for their globule size and zeta potential. A rat in vivo study was carried out to investigate prostate weight and index, histopathology, and pharmacokinetics. The average globule size for the optimized TDL-PSO SNEDDS was 204.8 ± 18.76 nm, with a zeta-potential value of 7.86 ± 1.21 mV. TDL-PSO SNEDDS produced a marked drop in prostate weight by 35.51% and prostate index by 36.71% compared to the testosterone-only group. Pharmacokinetic data revealed a 2.3-fold increase of TDL concentration, from optimized TDL-PSO SNEDDS, in the prostate compared with the raw TDL group. This study indicated that the combination of TDL and PSO in an optimized TDL PSO SNEDDS formula improved the efficacy of TDL in the management of BPH.

Development Of Saquinavir Mesylate Nanoemulsion-Loaded Transdermal Films: Two-Step Optimization Of Permeation Parameters, Characterization, And Ex Vivo And In Vivo Evaluation

Background

Saquinavir mesylate (SQR) tablets are widely used against human immunodeficiency virus. SQR has bioavailability issues owing to its poor aqueous solubility, extensive first-pass metabolism, and even low gastrointestinal tract permeability and absorption.

Objective

An in-depth optimization process was carried out using factorial design to improve the permeation parameters and thereby the bioavailability of SQR by formulating self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS)-loaded polymeric transdermal films.

Methods

The solubility of SQR in different nanoemulsion components was examined. Various combinations of selected components were prepared in an extreme vertices mixture design to identify the useful nanoemulsion zone and to develop SNEDDS with minimum globule size. The optimized SQR-SNEDDS was loaded in polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based transdermal films. The Box-Behnken design was used to optimize and evaluate SQR permeability. The prepared films were characterized for thickness, tensile strength, elongation, folding endurance, and accelerated stability studies. The optimized film was examined for ex vivo skin permeation and in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters.

Results

The optimized SQR-SNEDDS was prepared in proportions of 0.1, 0.55, and 0.35 of clove oil, labrasol, and Transcutol, respectively. The implemented Box-Behnken design indicated the optimized film consisted of 1.0% PVA, 0.25% propylene glycol, and clove oil as the oil phase. The tensile strength, thickness, percent elongation, and folding endurance of the optimized SQR-SNEDDS film were 0.93 ± 0.013 kg/cm², 0.22 ± 0.006 mm, 43.1 ± 0.022%, and >200 times, respectively. A higher Cmax and double the AUC were observed for SQR-SNEDDS–loaded film in comparison to pure SQR-loaded films.

Conclusion

Implementation of a two-step design to optimize and control experimental factors in the preparation of SQR-SNEDDS and its loading onto PVA-based transdermal films was achieved. The films indicated improved ex vivo skin permeation, enhanced bioavailability, and overcame the limitations of the oral dosage form.

Pharmacokinetic Aspects of Nanoparticle-in-Matrix Drug Delivery Systems for Oral/Buccal Delivery

Oral route maintains its predominance among the ones used for drug delivery, especially when medicines are self-administered. If the dosage form is solid, therapy gains in dose precision and drug stability. Yet, some active pharmaceutical substances do not present the required solubility, permeability, or release profile for incorporation into traditional matrices. The combination of nanostructured drugs (nanoparticle [NP]) with these matrices is a new and little-explored alternative, which could bring several benefits. Therefore, this review focused on combined delivery systems based on nanostructures to administer drugs by the oral cavity, intended for buccal, sublingual, gastric, or intestinal absorption. We analyzed published NP-in-matrix systems and compared main formulation characteristics, pharmacokinetics, release profiles, and physicochemical stability improvements. The reported formulations are mainly semisolid or solid polymers, with polymeric or lipid NPs and one active pharmaceutical ingredient. Regarding drug specifics, most of them are poorly permeable or greatly metabolized. The few studies with pharmacokinetics showed increased drug bioavailability and, sometimes, a controlled release rate. From our knowledge, the gathered data make up the first focused review of these trendy systems, which we believe will help to gain scientific deepness and future advancements in the field.

Use of Lipid Nanocarriers to Improve Oral Delivery of Vitamins

The chemical environment and enzymes in the gastrointestinal (GI) membrane limit the oral absorption of some vitamins. The GI epithelium also contributes to the poor permeability of numerous antioxidant agents. Thus, lipophilic vitamins do not readily dissolve in the GI tract, and therefore they have low bioavailability. Nanomedicine has the potential to improve the delivery efficiency of oral vitamins. In particular, the use of lipid nanocarriers for certain vitamins that are administered orally can provide improved solubility, chemical stability, epithelium permeability and bioavailability, half-life, nidus targeting, and fewer adverse effects. These lipid nanocarriers include self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs), nanoemulsions, microemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs). The use of nontoxic excipients and sophisticated material engineering of lipid nanosystems allows for control of the physicochemical properties of the nanoparticles and improved GI permeation via mucosal or lymphatic transport. In this review, we highlight recent progress in the development of lipid nanocarriers for vitamin delivery. In addition, the same lipid nanocarriers used for vitamins may also be effective as carriers of vitamin derivatives, and therefore enhance their oral bioavailability. One example is the incorporation of d-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol succinate (TPGS) as the emulsifier in lipid nanocarriers to increase the solubility and inhibit P-glycoprotein (P-gp) efflux. We also survey the concepts and discuss the mechanisms of nanomedical techniques that are used to develop vitamin-loaded nanocarriers.

Formulation and clinical investigation of optimized vinpocetine lyoplant-tabs: new strategy in development of buccal solid dosage form

BACKGROUND

This work aimed to develop a new solid dosage formulation of vinpocetine (VPN) in the form of buccal freeze-dried pullulan-based tablets (lyoplant-tabs) loaded with physically modified drug binary system.

METHODS

Different polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) grades were studied to prepare an efficient VPN binary system characterized by enhanced equilibrium saturation solubility, solubilization efficiency, thermodynamic stability, and permeation through oral mucosal cell lines. The concentrations of pullulan and swelling-aid polymer that affect the quality attributes of lyoplant-tabs were optimized. Clinical pharmacokinetics study on human volunteers for the optimized lyoplant-tabs compared to marketed product was accomplished.

RESULTS

A promising drug binary system with polyvinyl pyrrolidone vinyl acetate (PVP-VA64) utilizing the lyophilization technique was developed. Solid-state characterization confirmed transformation of VPN completely into the amorphous form. The concentrations of pullulan and swelling-aid polymer were significantly affecting the characteristics of the tablets. Compared to the commercial VPN tablets, pullulan-based buccal tablets demonstrated enhancement in the studied pharmacokinetic parameters with positive impact on the drug bioavailability.

CONCLUSION

These VPN lyoplant-tabs containing lyophilized PVP-VA64-VPN binary system can be considered as an alternative to currently available marketed tablets; however, further preclinical investigations using large number of volunteers are required.

Systematic Development of Self-Nanoemulsifying Liquisolid Tablets to Improve the Dissolution and Oral Bioavailability of an Oily Drug, Vitamin K1

The purpose of this study is to improve the dissolution and oral bioavailability of an oily drug, vitamin K1 (VK1) by combination of self-nanoemulsifying and liquisolid technologies. The optimal liquid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (SNEDDS) formulation including VK1 (oil), mixture of soybean lecithin and glycocholic acid (surfactant) and Transcutol HP (cosurfactant) was obtained according to ternary phase diagrams and a central composite design. Based on compatibility, adsorption capacity and dissolution profile, liquid SNEDDS was then solidified on Fujicalin^® to form solid SNEDDS by liquisolid technology and compressed directly with excipients into self-nanoemulsifying liquisolid (SNE-L) tablets. Uniform nano-emulsion suspension was formed rapidly when the SNE-L tablets disintegrated in dissolution media and higher drug dissolution was observed compared with the conventional tablets. The results of pharmacokinetic study in beagle dogs showed that the mean C_max and the area under the curve of SNE-L tablets were remarkably higher than those of conventional tablets, which were consistent with the results of the in vitro dissolution. The relative bioavailability of SNE-L tablets and conventional tablets was approximately 200%. In conclusion, this combination method showed promise to improve the dissolution and oral bioavailability of oily drug vitamin K1.

Development of optimized self-nanoemulsifying lyophilized tablets (SNELTs) to improve finasteride clinical pharmacokinetic behavior

OBJECTIVE

Preparation of an optimized finasteride (FSD) lyophilized tablets loaded with self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS).

SIGNIFICANCE

Enhance FSD bioavailability in male pattern baldness and benign prostatic hyperplasia.

METHODS

Two-step optimization was implemented to achieve the study goals. First; the mixture design was used to develop an optimized SNEDDS through which the effect of cosurfactant number of carbon atoms on SNEDDS particle size and thermodynamic stability has been tested. Second; the different tablet excipients have been used to develop an optimized self-nanoemulsifying lyophilized tablets (SNELTs). The prepared tablets have been fully characterized. Interaction among tablet components has been studied. Finally, FSD clinical pharmacokinetic has been investigated on human volunteers.

RESULTS

Anise oil and tween 80 were selected as oily phase and surfactant, respectively while different aliphatic alcohols were studied as cosurfactants. Percentages of oil, surfactant, and cosurfactants were significantly affecting SNEDDS particle size. Increasing cosurfactant number of carbon atoms achieved smaller particle size and higher stability. The optimized SNEDDS was found to contain 10.3455, 45.8972, and 43.7573% of anise oil, tween 80, and butanol, respectively. Variations in FSD cumulative release and disintegration time, from the prepared tablets, were attributed to change in the percent of plasdone XL, Avicel and silica. No interaction among components was noticed. Clinical pharmacokinetics illustrated significant enhancement in the studied parameters from the optimized lyophilized tablets loaded with drug SNEDDS when compared to marketed FSD product.

CONCLUSION

Lyophilized tablets could be considered as a good alternative for conventional solid dosage forms especially when loaded with drug nanosystems.