Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in intractable childhood epilepsy: open-label study and review of the literature

Altered immune pathways in patients of temporal lobe epilepsy with and without hippocampal sclerosis

Over the past decades, the immune responses have been suspected of participating in the mechanisms for epilepsy. To assess the immune related pathway in temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), we explored the altered immune pathways in TLE patients with and without hippocampal sclerosis (HS). We analyzed RNA-seq data from 3 TLE-HS and 3 TLE-nonHS patients, including identification of differentially expressed RNA, function pathway enrichment, the protein-protein interaction network and construction of ceRNA regulatory network. We illustrated the immune related landscape of molecules and pathways on human TLE-HS. Also, we identified several differential immune related genes like HSP90AA1 and SOD1 in TLE-HS patients. Further ceRNA regulatory network analysis found SOX2-OT connected to miR-671-5p and upregulated the target gene SPP1 in TLE-HS patients. Also, we identified both SOX2-OT and SPP1 were significantly upregulated in five different databases including TLE-HS patients and animal models. Our findings established the first immune related genes and possible regulatory pathways in TLE-HS patients and animal models, which provided a novel insight into disease pathogenesis in both patients and animal models. The immune related SOX2-OT/miR-671-5p/SPP1 axis may be the potential therapeutic target for TLE-HS.

Current and emerging pharmacotherapy for the treatment of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome

INTRODUCTION

Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) is a severe childhood-onset epileptic encephalopathy, characterized by multiple seizure types, generalized slow spike-and-wave complexes in the EEG, and cognitive impairment. Seizures in LGS are typically resistant to treatment with antiseizure medications (ASMs). Tonic/atonic ('drop') seizures are of particular concern, due to their liability to cause physical injury.

AREAS COVERED

We summarize evidence for current and emerging ASMs for the treatment of seizures in LGS. The review focuses on findings from randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trials (RDBCTs). For ASMs for which no double-blind trials were identified, lower quality evidence was considered. Novel pharmacological agents currently undergoing investigation for the treatment of LGS are also briefly discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Evidence from RDBCTs supports the use of cannabidiol, clobazam, felbamate, fenfluramine, lamotrigine, rufinamide, and topiramate as adjunct treatments for drop seizures. Percentage decreases in drop seizure frequency ranged from 68.3% with high-dose clobazam to 14.8% with topiramate. Valproate continues to be considered the first-line treatment, despite the absence of RDBCTs specifically in LGS. Most individuals with LGS will require treatment with multiple ASMs. Treatment decisions should be individualized and take into account adverse effects, comorbidities, general quality of life, and drug interactions, as well as individual efficacy.

Epilepsy and Cognitive Impairment in Childhood and Adolescence: A Mini-Review

Managing epilepsy in people with an intellectual disability remains a therapeutic challenge and must take into account additional issues such as diagnostic difficulties and frequent drug resistance. Advances in genomic technologies improved our understanding of epilepsy and raised the possibility to develop patients-tailored treatments acting on the key molecular mechanisms involved in the development of the disease. In addition to conventional antiseizure medications (ASMs), ketogenic diet, hormone therapy and epilepsy surgery play an important role, especially in cases of drugresistance. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the mainfactors influencing cognition in children and adolescents with epilepsy and the main therapeutic options available for the epilepsies associated with intellectual disability.

Management and prognosis of pediatric status epilepticus

Background

Pediatric status epilepticus is a neurological emergency with the potential for severe developmental and neurological consequences. Prompt diagnosis and management are necessary.

Objectives

To outline the existing best available evidence for managing pediatric and neonatal status epilepticus, in the light of emerging randomized controlled studies. We also focus on short and long-term prognoses.

Materials and methods

This is a systematic overview of the existing literature.

Results

Status epilepticus, its treatment, and prognosis are usually based on the continuation of seizure activity at 5 and 30 min. Refractory and super-refractory status epilepticus further complicates management and requires continuous EEG monitoring with regular reassessment and adjustment of therapy. Benzodiazepines have been accepted as the first line of treatment on the basis of reasonable evidence. Emerging randomized controlled trials demonstrate equal efficacy for parenterally administered phenytoin, levetiracetam, and valproic acid as second-line agents. Beyond this, the evidence for third-line options is sparse. However, encouraging evidence for midazolam and ketamine exists with further data required for immunological, dietary, and surgical interventions.

Conclusion

Our overview of the management of pediatric and neonatal status epilepticus based on available evidence emphasizes the need for evidence-based guidelines to manage status epilepticus that fails to respond to second-line treatment.

Super-Refractory Status Epilepticus in Children: A Retrospective Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

To characterize the pediatric super-refractory status epilepticus population by describing treatment variability in super-refractory status epilepticus patients and comparing relevant clinical characteristics, including outcomes, between super-refractory status epilepticus, and nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus patients.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study with prospectively collected data between June 2011 and January 2019.

SETTING

Seventeen academic hospitals in the United States.

PATIENTS

We included patients 1 month to 21 years old presenting with convulsive refractory status epilepticus. We defined super-refractory status epilepticus as continuous or intermittent seizures lasting greater than or equal to 24 hours following initiation of continuous infusion and divided the cohort into super-refractory status epilepticus and nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus groups.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

We identified 281 patients (157 males) with a median age of 4.1 years (1.3-9.5 yr), including 31 super-refractory status epilepticus patients. Compared with nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus group, super-refractory status epilepticus patients had delayed initiation of first nonbenzodiazepine-antiseizure medication (149 min [55-491.5 min] vs 62 min [33.3-120.8 min]; p = 0.030) and of continuous infusion (495 min [177.5-1,255 min] vs 150 min [90-318.5 min]; p = 0.003); prolonged seizure duration (120 hr [58-368 hr] vs 3 hr [1.4-5.9 hr]; p < 0.001) and length of ICU stay (17 d [9.5-40 d] vs [1.8-8.8 d]; p < 0.001); more medical complications (18/31 [58.1%] vs 55/250 [22.2%] patients; p < 0.001); lower return to baseline function (7/31 [22.6%] vs 182/250 [73.4%] patients; p < 0.001); and higher mortality (4/31 [12.9%] vs 5/250 [2%]; p = 0.010). Within the super-refractory status epilepticus group, status epilepticus resolution was attained with a single continuous infusion in 15 of 31 patients (48.4%), two in 10 of 31 (32.3%), and three or more in six of 31 (19.4%). Most super-refractory status epilepticus patients (30/31, 96.8%) received midazolam as first choice. About 17 of 31 patients (54.8%) received additional treatments.

CONCLUSIONS

Super-refractory status epilepticus patients had delayed initiation of nonbenzodiazepine antiseizure medication treatment, higher number of medical complications and mortality, and lower return to neurologic baseline than nonsuper-refractory status epilepticus patients, although these associations were not adjusted for potential confounders. Treatment approaches following the first continuous infusion were heterogeneous, reflecting limited information to guide clinical decision-making in super-refractory status epilepticus.

Inflammatory and immune mechanisms underlying epileptogenesis and epilepsy: From pathogenesis to treatment target

Epilepsy is a brain disease associated with epileptic seizures as well as with neurobehavioral outcomes of this condition. In the last century, inflammation emerged as a crucial factor in epilepsy etiology. Various brain insults through activation of neuronal and non-neuronal brain cells initiate a series of inflammatory events. Growing observations strongly suggest that abnormal activation of critical inflammatory processes contributes to epileptogenesis, a gradual process by which a normal brain transforms into the epileptic brain. Increased knowledge of inflammatory pathways in epileptogenesis has unveiled mechanistic targets for novel antiepileptic therapies. Molecules specifically targeting the pivotal inflammatory pathways may serve as promising candidates to halt the development of epilepsy. The present paper reviews the pieces of evidence conceptually supporting the potential role of inflammatory mechanisms and the relevant blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption in epileptogenesis. Also, it discusses the mechanisms underlying inflammation-induced neuronal-glial network impairment and highlights innovative neuroregulatory actions of typical inflammatory molecules. Finally, it presents a brief analysis of observations supporting the therapeutic role of inflammation-targeting tiny molecules in epileptic seizures.

Fremanezumab and its isotype slow propagation rate and shorten cortical recovery period but do not prevent occurrence of cortical spreading depression in rats with compromised blood-brain barrier

Most centrally acting migraine preventive drugs suppress frequency and velocity of cortical spreading depression (CSD). The purpose of the current study was to determine how the new class of peripherally acting migraine preventive drug (ie, the anti-CGRP-mAbs) affect CSD-an established animal model of migraine aura, which affects about 1/3 of people with migraine-when allowed to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Using standard electrocorticogram recording techniques and rats in which the BBB was intentionally compromised, we found that when the BBB was opened, the anti-CGRP-mAb fremanezumab did not prevent the induction, occurrence, or propagation of a single wave of CSD induced by a pinprick, but that both fremanezumab and its isotype were capable of slowing down the propagation velocity of CSD and shortening the period of profound depression of spontaneous cortical activity that followed the spreading depolarization. Fremanezumab's inability to completely block the occurrence of CSD in animals in which the BBB was compromised suggests that calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) may not be involved in the initiation of CSD, at least not to the extent that it can prevent its occurrence. Similarly, we cannot conclude that CGRP is involved in the propagation velocity or the neuronal silencing period (also called cortical recovery period) that follows the CSD because similar effects were observed when the isotype was used. These finding call for caution with interpretations of studies that claim to show direct central nervous system effects of CGRP-mAbs.

Immunotherapy for GRIN2A and GRIN2D-related epileptic encephalopathy

BACKGROUND

GRIN-related developmental-epileptic encephalopathies are associated with a spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders, including intellectual disability, epilepsy including continuous spike-and-wave during sleep syndrome (CSWS), or epilepsy-aphasia spectrum phenotypes such as in Landau-Kleffner syndrome. Efficacy of IVIG treatment was recently reported in a patient with LKS related to GRIN2A mutation.

AIM AND METHODS

We describe the efficacy of Immunotherapy in 5 consecutive patients (4 males, age range 6 months-13 years) with molecularly confirmed GRIN-related epileptic encephalopathy (4 with GRIN2A- related epilepsy-aphasia spectrum/epileptic encephalopathy with CSWS, accompanied by verbal, communicative and behavioural regression, and one patient with GRIN2D - related infantile developmental-epileptic encephalopathy). All patients had global developmental delay/ intellectual disability in various degrees, and were resistant to anticonvulsants, but none of the patients had frequent clinical seizures. All patients received monthly infusion of IVIG 2 g/ kg for 6 months; 2 patients were also treated with high-dose corticosteroids.

RESULTS

Normalization or near normalization of the EEG was noted in 3 patients, from whom 2 had mild improvement in verbal abilities and communication skills. Perceptual/spatial abilities, as well as executive functions and attention span, remained significantly impaired.

CONCLUSION

according to this preliminary, open-label study, Immunotherapy may lead to a clinical and electrographic improvement in patients with GRIN-related developmental-epileptic encephalopathies. Further studies to validate the efficacy of immunotherapy and the potential role of autoimmunity in GRIN-related disorders are needed.

Intravenous immunoglobulins for epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy is a common neurological condition, with an estimated incidence of 50 per 100,000 persons. People with epilepsy may present with various types of immunological abnormalities, such as low serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels, lack of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) subclass and identification of certain types of antibodies. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment may represent a valuable approach and its efficacy has important implications for epilepsy management. This is an update of a Cochrane review first published in 2011 and last updated in 2017.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the effects of IVIg on the frequency and duration of seizures, quality of life and adverse effects when used as monotherapy or as add-on treatment for people with epilepsy.

SEARCH METHODS

For the latest update, we searched the Cochrane Register of Studies (CRS Web) (20 December 2018), MEDLINE (Ovid, 1946 to 20 December 2018), Web of Science (1898 to 20 December 2018), ISRCTN registry (20 December 2018), WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP, 20 December 2018), the US National Institutes of Health ClinicalTrials.gov (20 December 2018), and reference lists of articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials of IVIg as monotherapy or add-on treatment in people with epilepsy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed the trials for inclusion and extracted data. We contacted study authors for additional information. Outcomes included percentage of people rendered seizure-free, 50% or greater reduction in seizure frequency, adverse effects, treatment withdrawal and quality of life.

MAIN RESULTS

We included one study (61 participants). The included study was a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial which compared the treatment efficacy of IVIg as an add-on with a placebo add-on in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy. Seizure freedom was not reported in the study. There was no significant difference between IVIg and placebo in 50% or greater reduction in seizure frequency (RR 1.89, 95% CI 0.85 to 4.21; one study, 58 participants; low-certainty evidence). The study reported a statistically significant effect for global assessment in favour of IVIg (RR 3.29, 95% CI 1.13 to 9.57; one study, 60 participants; low-certainty evidence). No adverse effects were demonstrated. We found no randomised controlled trials that investigated the effects of IVIg monotherapy for epilepsy. Overall, the included study was rated at low to unclear risk of bias. Using GRADE methodology, the certainty of the evidence was rated as low.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We cannot draw any reliable conclusions regarding the efficacy of IVIg as a treatment for epilepsy. Further randomised controlled trials are needed.

Novel therapies for epilepsy in the pipeline

Despite the availability of many antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) (old and newly developed) and, as recently suggested, their optimization in the treatment of patients with uncontrolled seizures, more than 30% of patients with epilepsy continue to experience seizures and have drug-resistant epilepsy; the management of these patients represents a real challenge for epileptologists and researchers. Resective surgery with the best rates of seizure control is not an option for all of them; therefore, research and discovery of new methods of treating resistant epilepsy are of extreme importance. In this article, we will discuss some innovative approaches, such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitors, gene therapy, stem cell therapy, traditional and novel antiepileptic devices, precision medicine, as well as therapeutic advances in epileptic encephalopathy in children; these treatment modalities open up new horizons for the treatment of patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.

Entire FGF12 duplication by complex chromosomal rearrangements associated with West syndrome

Complex rearrangements of chromosomes 3 and 9 were found in a patient presenting with severe epilepsy, developmental delay, dysmorphic facial features, and skeletal abnormalities. Molecular cytogenetic analysis revealed 46,XX.ish der(9)(3qter→3q28::9p21.1→9p22.3::9p22.3→9qter)(RP11-368G14+,RP11-299O8-,RP11-905L2++,RP11-775E6++). Her dysmorphic features are consistent with 3q29 microduplication syndrome and inv dup del(9p). Trio-based WES of the patient revealed no pathogenic single nucleotide variants causing epilepsy, but confirmed a 3q28q29 duplication involving FGF12, which encodes fibroblast growth factor 12. FGF12 positively regulates the activity of voltage-gated sodium channels. Recently, only one recurrent gain-of-function variant [NM_021032.4:c.341G>A:p.(Arg114His)] in FGF12 was found in a total of 10 patients with severe early-onset epilepsy. We propose that the patient's entire FGF12 duplication may be analogous to the gain-of-function variant in FGF12 in the epileptic phenotype of this patient.

Intravenous immunoglobulin G as adjuvant treatment in drug-resistant childhood epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy is the most common neurological disease in childhood; depending on the definition of drug-resistant epilepsy, incidence varies from 10% to 23% in the paediatric population. The objective of this study was to account for the decrease in the frequency and/or monthly duration of epileptic seizures in paediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy treated with antiepileptic drugs, before and after adding intravenous immunoglobulin G (iIV IgG).

METHODS

This is an analytic, observational, retrospective case-control study. We studied paediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy who were treated with IV IgG at the Centro Médico Nacional 20 de Noviembre, in Mexico City, from 2003 to 2013.

RESULTS

One hundred and sixty seven patients (19.5%) had drug-resistant epilepsy and 44 (5.1%) started adjuvant treatment with IV IgG. The mean age of patients at the beginning of treatment was 6.12 years±5.14); aetiology was structural acquired in 28 patients (73.6%), genetic in 5 (13.1%), immune in 1 (2.6%), and unknown in 4 (10.5%). At 2 months from starting IV IgG, seizure duration had reduced to 66.66%; the frequency of seizures was reduced by 64% at 4 months after starting treatment (P<.001).

CONCLUSIONS

According to the results of this study, intravenous immunoglobulin may be an effective therapy for reducing the frequency and duration of seizures in paediatric patients with drug-resistant epilepsy.

Lennox-Gastaut syndrome: a comprehensive review

Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (LGS) is considered an epileptic encephalopathy and is defined by a triad of multiple drug-resistant seizure types, a specific EEG pattern showing bursts of slow spike-wave complexes or generalized paroxysmal fast activity, and intellectual disability. The prevalence of LGS is estimated between 1 and 2% of all patients with epilepsy. The etiology of LGS is often divided into two groups: identifiable (genetic-structural-metabolic) in 65 to 75% of the patients and LGS of unknown cause in others. Lennox-Gastaut syndrome may be considered as secondary network epilepsy. The seizures in LGS are usually drug-resistant, and complete seizure control with resolution of intellectual and psychosocial dysfunction is often not achievable. Reduction in frequency of the most incapacitating seizures (e.g., drop attacks and tonic-clonic seizures) should be the major objective. Valproate, lamotrigine, and topiramate are considered to be the first-line drugs by many experts. Other effective antiepileptic drugs include levetiracetam, clobazam, rufinamide, and zonisamide. The ketogenic diet is an effective and well-tolerated treatment option. For patients with drug resistance, a further therapeutic option is surgical intervention. Corpus callosotomy is a palliative surgical procedure that aims at controlling the most injurious seizures. Finally, vagus nerve stimulation offers reasonable seizure improvement. The long-term outcome for patients with LGS is generally poor. This syndrome is often associated with long-term adverse effects on intellectual development, social functioning, and independent living.

Intravenous immunoglobulins for epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy is a common neurological condition, with an estimated incidence of 50 per 100,000 persons. People with epilepsy may present with various types of immunological abnormalities, such as low serum immunoglobulin A (IgA) levels, lack of the immunoglobulin G (IgG) subclass and identification of certain types of antibodies. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment may represent a valuable approach and its efficacy has important implications for epilepsy management. This is an updated version of the original Cochrane review published in Issue 1, 2011.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the effects of IVIg on the frequency and duration of seizures, quality of life and adverse effects when used as monotherapy or as add-on treatment for people with epilepsy.

SEARCH METHODS

For the latest update, we searched the Cochrane Epilepsy Group Specialized Register (2 February 2017), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) via the Cochrane Register of Studies Online (2 February 2017), MEDLINE (Ovid, 1946 to 2 February 2017), Web of Science (1898 to 2 February 2017), ISRCTN registry (2 February 2017), WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP, 2 February 2017), the US National Institutes of Health ClinicalTrials.gov (2 February 2017), and reference lists of articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized or quasi-randomized controlled trials of IVIg as monotherapy or add-on treatment in people with epilepsy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed the trials for inclusion and extracted data. We contacted study authors for additional information. Outcomes included percentage of people rendered seizure-free, 50% or greater reduction in seizure frequency, adverse effects, treatment withdrawal and quality of life.

MAIN RESULTS

We included one study (61 participants). The included study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-centre trial which compared the treatment efficacy of IVIg as an add-on with a placebo add-on in patients with refractory epilepsy. There was no significant difference between IVIg and placebo in 50% or greater reduction in seizure frequency. The study reported a statistically significant effect for global assessment in favour of IVIg. No adverse effects were demonstrated. We found no randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of IVIg monotherapy for epilepsy. Overall, the included study was rated as low/unclear risk of bias. Using GRADE methodology, the quality of the evidence was rated as low.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We cannot draw any reliable conclusions regarding the efficacy of IVIg as a treatment for epilepsy. Further randomized controlled trials are needed.

Impact of Immunoglobulin Therapy in Pediatric Disease: a Review of Immune Mechanisms

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) provides replacement therapy in immunodeficiency and immunomodulatory therapy in inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. This paper describes the immune mechanisms underlying six major non-primary immunodeficiency pediatric diseases and the diverse immunomodulatory functions of IVIG therapy. In Kawasaki disease, IVIG plays a major, proven, and effective role in decreasing aneurysm formation, which represents an aberrant inflammatory response to an infectious trigger in a genetically predisposed individual. In immune thrombocytopenia, IVIG targets the underlying increased platelet destruction and decreased platelet production. Although theoretically promising, IVIG shows no clear clinical benefit in the prophylaxis and treatment of neonatal sepsis. Limitations in research design combined with the unique neonatal immunologic environment offer explanations for this finding. Inflammation from aberrant immune activation underlies the myelinotoxic effects of Guillain-Barré syndrome. HIV-1 exerts a broad range of immunologic effects and was found to decrease serious bacterial infections in the pre-highly active anti-retroviral therapy (HAART) era, although its practical relevance in the post-HAART era has waned. Clinical and experimental data support the role of immune mechanisms in the pathogenesis of childhood epilepsy. IVIG exerts anti-epileptic effects through targeting upregulated cytokine pathways and antibodies thought to contribute to epilepsy. Applications in six additional pediatric diseases including pediatric asthma, atopic dermatitis, cystic fibrosis, pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcal infection (PANDAS), autism, and transplantation will also be briefly reviewed. From autoimmunity to immunodeficiency, a dynamic immunologic basis underlies major pediatric diseases and highlights the broad potential of IVIG therapy.

Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy is rarely effective as the initial treatment in West syndrome: A retrospective study of 70 patients

PURPOSE

To evaluate factors influencing the efficacy and safety of intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) therapy for West syndrome.

METHODS

We investigated seizure outcomes in 70 patients who received IVIG treatment for West Syndrome during the first 3months after the onset of epileptic spasms. IVIG was administered for 3 consecutive days (initial IVIG treatment) at dosages ranging from 100 to 500mg/kg/day. If spasms disappeared within 2weeks of the initial treatment, maintenance IVIG treatment was commenced. We evaluated seizure outcomes at 2weeks (initial evaluation), at 2years (long-term evaluation), and the last visit (last follow-up evaluation) after the initial IVIG treatment. We analyzed dosages of IVIG, age at onset of spasms, treatment lag, and etiologies between responders and non-responders.

RESULTS

Among the patients, 7/70 (10.0%) had cessation of spasms and resolution of hypsarrhythmia at the initial evaluation. Another 6/70 patients (8.6%) were found to have cessation of spasms at the long-term evaluations. The treatment lag in responders was shorter than that in non-responders (P<0.01). There were no significant differences between responders and non-responders in IVIG dosages, age at onset of spasms, and etiologies. Two patients had relapse of partial seizures after cessation of spasms at the last follow-up evaluation. Adverse effects occurred in 2/70 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The efficacy of IVIG was so low that it should not be considered as first-line treatment in West syndrome. IVIG therapy has a good safety profile and we would recommend it for West syndrome cases with drug resistance, severe complications associated with profound brain damage, severe brain atrophy, and in immunocompromised patients.

Identification and Treatment of Pathophysiological Comorbidities of Autism Spectrum Disorder to Achieve Optimal Outcomes

Despite the fact that the prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) continues to rise, no effective medical treatments have become standard of care. In this paper we review some of the pathophysiological abnormalities associated with ASD and their potential associated treatments. Overall, there is evidence for some children with ASD being affected by seizure and epilepsy, neurotransmitter dysfunction, sleep disorders, metabolic abnormalities, including abnormalities in folate, cobalamin, tetrahydrobiopterin, carnitine, redox and mitochondrial metabolism, and immune and gastrointestinal disorders. Although evidence for an association between these pathophysiological abnormalities and ASD exists, the exact relationship to the etiology of ASD and its associated symptoms remains to be further defined in many cases. Despite these limitations, treatments targeting some of these pathophysiological abnormalities have been studied in some cases with high-quality studies, whereas treatments for other pathophysiological abnormalities have not been well studied in many cases. There are some areas of more promising treatments specific for ASD including neurotransmitter abnormalities, particularly imbalances in glutamate and acetylcholine, sleep onset disorder (with behavioral therapy and melatonin), and metabolic abnormalities in folate, cobalamin, tetrahydrobiopterin, carnitine, and redox pathways. There is some evidence for treatments of epilepsy and seizures, mitochondrial and immune disorders, and gastrointestinal abnormalities, particularly imbalances in the enteric microbiome, but further clinical studies are needed in these areas to better define treatments specific to children with ASD. Clearly, there are some promising areas of ASD research that could lead to novel treatments that could become standard of care in the future, but more research is needed to better define subgroups of children with ASD who are affected by specific pathophysiological abnormalities and the optimal treatments for these abnormalities.

Current and Emerging Therapies of Severe Epileptic Encephalopathies

In this article, we review the treatment options for the pediatric epileptic encephalopathies and provide an update on the new and emerging therapies targeted at the underlying pathophysiology of many of these syndromes. We illustrate how the identification of the specific genetic and autoimmune causes has made possible the evaluation and development of novel, better targeted therapies, as and at times, avoidance of potentially offending agents.

Efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin in a cohort of children with drug-resistant epilepsy

OBJECTIVES

We describe the experience of a pediatric epilepsy center regarding the efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin for drug-resistant seizures in children.

METHODS

A retrospective chart review of all children in a community-based, children's hospital neurology clinic from 2006 to 2012, inclusive, with intractable epilepsy who were treated with intravenous immunoglobulin for a minimum of six cycles was performed. Data collected included patient demographics, seizure and epilepsy syndrome type, presumed etiology for the seizures, and seizure frequency. Response to intravenous immunoglobulin was defined as "positive" if either seizure freedom or ≥50% reduction of seizures was achieved.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven children (3-17 years old) were identified and included in the analysis. Following treatment with intravenous immunoglobulin, the following outcomes were noted: four were seizure-free, eight had 90% reduction, five had 75% reduction, and five had 50% reduction. A total of 22 (81%) patients had a positive clinical response to treatment from baseline. Five patients (19%) were not responsive. No clear relationship of responsiveness to intravenous immunoglobulin with regard to age, gender, or epilepsy syndrome was apparent; however, the small numbers in each category precluded meaningful statistical analysis.

SIGNIFICANCE

Our findings and those of others suggest that intravenous immunoglobulin is a potentially high efficacy, low side effect profile therapy in the treatment of children with drug-resistant epilepsies. Intravenous immunoglobulin was able to reduce multiple seizure types in a variety of epilepsy etiologies, including those of unknown cause.

Immunomodulation in Adult Epilepsy: The Role of IVIG

Much of the research for intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) use in epilepsy has focused on childhood epilepsies and the results have been inconclusive. As evidence for inflammation in epilepsy and epileptogenesis is accumulating, IVIG might have a role to play in adult epilepsy. Our literature review focuses on the purported mechanisms of IVIG, the link between inflammation and the various causes of adult epilepsy and the different steps of epileptogenesis at which inflammation might play a role. We also review the current clinical evidence supporting IVIG as a treatment for epilepsy in the adult population. Though there is interesting theoretical potential for treatment of refractory epilepsy in adults with IVIG, insufficient evidence exists to support its standard use. The question remains if IVIG should still be considered as an end-of-the-line option for patients with epilepsy poorly responsive to all other treatments.

The impact of microglial activation on blood-brain barrier in brain diseases

The blood-brain barrier (BBB), constituted by an extensive network of endothelial cells (ECs) together with neurons and glial cells, including microglia, forms the neurovascular unit (NVU). The crosstalk between these cells guarantees a proper environment for brain function. In this context, changes in the endothelium-microglia interactions are associated with a variety of inflammation-related diseases in brain, where BBB permeability is compromised. Increasing evidences indicate that activated microglia modulate expression of tight junctions, which are essential for BBB integrity and function. On the other hand, the endothelium can regulate the state of microglial activation. Here, we review recent advances that provide insights into interactions between the microglia and the vascular system in brain diseases such as infectious/inflammatory diseases, epilepsy, ischemic stroke and neurodegenerative disorders.

Nervous and immune systems signals and connections: cytokines in hippocampus physiology and pathology

Signaling through secretion of small molecules is a hallmark of both nervous and immune systems. The scope and influence of the intense message exchange between these two complex systems are only now becoming objects of scientific inquiry. Both neurotransmitters and cytokines affect their target cells through surface receptors and also by other molecular mechanisms. Cytokine receptors are present in neurons and glial cell populations in discrete brain regions. This review firstly focuses on the role of cytokines in hippocampal physiological processes, such as memory and learning, and secondly on the pathological involvement of cytokines in diseases like depression and epilepsy. Interleukin-1β is necessary for long-term potentiation (LTP) maintenance in the hippocampus. On the other hand, interleukin-6 has a negative regulatory role in long-term memory acquisition. Astrocyte-secreted tumor necrosis factor plays a role in synaptic strength by increasing surface translocation of glutamate AMPA receptors, and the chemokine CXCL12 can silence the tonic activity of Cajal-Retzius neurons in the hippocampus. Manifold increased concentrations of interleukin-10, interferon-γ, ICAM1, CCL2, and CCL4 are observed in the hippocampi of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy. A contemporary view of the role of cytokines as neuromodulators is emerging from studies in humans and manipulations of experimental animals. Despite the accumulating evidence of the role of cytokines on nervous system physiology and pathology, it is important not to exaggerate its relevance.

A review of traditional and novel treatments for seizures in autism spectrum disorder: findings from a systematic review and expert panel

Despite the fact that seizures are commonly associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), the effectiveness of treatments for seizures has not been well studied in individuals with ASD. This manuscript reviews both traditional and novel treatments for seizures associated with ASD. Studies were selected by systematically searching major electronic databases and by a panel of experts that treat ASD individuals. Only a few anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) have undergone carefully controlled trials in ASD, but these trials examined outcomes other than seizures. Several lines of evidence point to valproate, lamotrigine, and levetiracetam as the most effective and tolerable AEDs for individuals with ASD. Limited evidence supports the use of traditional non-AED treatments, such as the ketogenic and modified Atkins diet, multiple subpial transections, immunomodulation, and neurofeedback treatments. Although specific treatments may be more appropriate for specific genetic and metabolic syndromes associated with ASD and seizures, there are few studies which have documented the effectiveness of treatments for seizures for specific syndromes. Limited evidence supports l-carnitine, multivitamins, and N-acetyl-l-cysteine in mitochondrial disease and dysfunction, folinic acid in cerebral folate abnormalities and early treatment with vigabatrin in tuberous sclerosis complex. Finally, there is limited evidence for a number of novel treatments, particularly magnesium with pyridoxine, omega-3 fatty acids, the gluten-free casein-free diet, and low-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic simulation. Zinc and l-carnosine are potential novel treatments supported by basic research but not clinical studies. This review demonstrates the wide variety of treatments used to treat seizures in individuals with ASD as well as the striking lack of clinical trials performed to support the use of these treatments. Additional studies concerning these treatments for controlling seizures in individuals with ASD are warranted.

Modulation of Immunity and the Inflammatory Response: A New Target for Treating Drug-resistant Epilepsy

Until recently, epilepsy medical therapy is usually limited to anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs). However, approximately 1/3 of epilepsy patients, described as drug-resistant epilepsy (DRE) patients, still suffer from continuous frequent seizures despite receiving adequate AEDs treatment of sufficient duration. More recently, with the remarkable progress of immunology, immunity and inflammation are considered to be key elements of the pathobiology of epilepsy. Activation of inflammatory processes in brain tissue has been observed in both experimental seizure animal models and epilepsy patients. Anti-inflammatory and immunotherapies also showed significant anticonvulsant properties both in clinical and in experimental settings. The above emerging evidence indicates that modulation of immunity and inflammatory processes could serve as novel specific targets to achieve potential anticonvulsant effects for the patients with epilepsy, especially DRE. Herein we review the recent evidence supporting the role of inflammation in the development and perpetuation of seizures, and also discuss the recent achievements in modulation of inflammation and immunotherapy applied to the treatment of epilepsy. Apart from medical therapy, we also discuss the influences of surgery, ketogenic diet, and electroconvulsive therapy on immunity and inflammation in DRE patients. Taken together, a promising perspective is suggested for future immunomodulatory therapies in the treatment of patients with DRE.

An effective initial polytherapy for children with West syndrome

Adrenocorticotropic hormone is recommended worldwide as an initial therapy for infantile spasms. However, infantile spasms in about 50% of children cannot be fully controlled by adrenocorticotropic hormone monotherapy, seizures recur in 33% of patients who initially respond to adrenocorticotropic hormone monotherapy, and side effects are relatively common during adrenocorticotropic hormone treatment. Topiramate, vitamin B₆, and immunoglobulin are effective in some children with infantile spasms. In the present study, we hypothesized that combined therapy with adrenocorticotropic hormone, topiramate, vitamin B₆, and immunoglobulin would effectively treat infantile spasms and have mild adverse effects. Thus, 51 children newly diagnosed with West syndrome including infantile spasms were enrolled and underwent polytherapy with the four drugs. Electroencephalographic hypsarrhythmia was significantly improved in a majority of patients, and these patients were seizure-free, had mild side effects, and low recurrence rates. The overall rates of effective treatment and loss of seizures were significantly higher in cryptogenic children compared with symptomatic children. The mean time to loss of seizures in cryptogenic children was significantly shorter than in symptomatic patients. These findings indicate that initial polytherapy with adrenocorticotropic hormone, topiramate, vitamin B₆, and immunoglobulin effectively improves the prognosis of infantile spasms, and its effects were superior in cryptogenic children to symptomatic children.

Glia and epilepsy: excitability and inflammation

Epilepsy is characterized by recurrent spontaneous seizures due to hyperexcitability and hypersynchrony of brain neurons. Current theories of pathophysiology stress neuronal dysfunction and damage, and aberrant connections as relevant factors. Most antiepileptic drugs target neuronal mechanisms. However, nearly one-third of patients have seizures that are refractory to available medications; a deeper understanding of mechanisms may be required to conceive more effective therapies. Recent studies point to a significant contribution by non-neuronal cells, the glia--especially astrocytes and microglia--in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. This review critically evaluates the role of glia-induced hyperexcitability and inflammation in epilepsy.

[Autoimmune encephalitis, clinical, radiological and immunological data]

INTRODUCTION

Encephalitis is an inflammatory or infectious disease with an acute or subacute presentation. Immunological abnormalities in serum can be found but may be underdiagnosed. In several cases, a paraneoplastic origin with anti-neuron antibodies is noted. In all cases, other auto-antibodies can be found with or without any neoplastic mechanism.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of our study was to describe a clinical, radiological and immunological cohort of patients with autoimmune encephalitis and suggest a diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm.

PATIENTS AND METHOD

We performed a retrospective study in an immunological unit of neurology. All patients with autoimmune encephalitis between March 2000 and October 2009 were included. The clinical, imaging and immunological evaluations were recorded for each patient.

RESULTS

Our cohort included 16 patients (eight men and eight women), mean age 45.3±10years. All patients had acute or subacute neuropsychological or neuropsychiatric impairment and all patients but one had temporal lobe dysfunction confirmed by cerebral MRI, PET or SPECT. Epilepsy was observed in 56% of cases, extra-temporal lobe impairment in 50%, including sleep disturbances. A cancer was found in only 25% (two small-cell lung cancers, one testis seminoma, one non-small-cell lung cancer with Merckel cells cancer). Anti-neuron antibodies were noted in 56% of cases (two with anti-voltage gate potassium channel complex antibodies (ab), two with anti-NMDA-R ab, two with anti-glutamate acid decarboxylase ab, one with anti-Ma2, two with anti-Hu ab and two remained uncharacterized). Systemic antibodies were found in 50% (one anti-gangliosides, one anti-SSA and one anti-DNA and four antinuclear ab uncharacterized, two anti-TPO and two anti-phospholipids). All patients received immunomodulatory treatments, including intravenous immunoglobulins (IgIV) and cancer was treated. Five patients achieved complete recovery, partial improvement was observed in 10 patients and two patients died.

DISCUSSION

Despite clinical homogeneity at presentation, clinical outcome seems to be different between patients with antibodies against neuronal surface antigens and those with antibodies against intracellular antigens, which are more likely refractory to immunotherapy and paraneoplastic. The frequency of extra-temporal lobe impairment suggests that the term of limbic encephalitis should be changed to autoimmune encephalitis.

Immunoglobulin treatment for severe childhood epilepsy

We have used intravenous immunoglobulin to treat pediatric patients with various severe epileptic conditions. This retrospective, multicenter study comprised 64 consecutive patients treated with immunoglobulins for either epileptic encephalopathy or refractory epilepsy. The rate of full or partial improvement according to specific syndrome involved three of four patients with idiopathic West syndrome, six of 12 patients with electrical status epilepticus in sleep, eight of 19 patients with an undefined syndrome, one of three patients with Landau-Kleffner syndrome, and one of two patients with Rasmussen encephalitis. Intravenous immunoglobulins were ineffective in 10 patients with symptomatic West syndrome, nine with febrile infection-related status epilepticus, three with myoclonic astatic epilepsy, and two with Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Nine patients (14%) demonstrated complete resolution, and 10 (15.6%) exhibited partial improvement. Of these 19 responders (29.7%), eight relapsed. Although intravenous immunoglobulin is not suitable for all cases of epilepsy, it may prove efficacious for specific epileptic syndromes, mainly idiopathic West syndrome and electrical status epilepticus during sleep.

The evaluation of treatment-resistant epilepsy

An estimated 10% to 40% of children with epilepsy have treatment-resistant epilepsy. Persistent seizures have negative psychosocial, behavioral, cognitive, and financial consequences and are associated with an increased mortality rate. Accurate syndromic and etiologic diagnoses are of vital importance because they may guide medical and/or surgical decision making. Revisitation of the history to confirm the diagnosis of epilepsy and the appropriateness of medication trials to date is vital. Routine imaging should include structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with an established epilepsy protocol. In the setting of a normal previous MRI, repeat imaging may be indicated and may be supplemented with other imaging modalities. The admission for prolonged inpatient video-encephalographic monitoring may lead to a revision of a pre-existing diagnosis. Laboratory evaluations should include genetic, metabolic, and infectious/inflammatory studies when indicated. In this review, we discuss the implication of seizure semiology and syndrome classification when searching for an underlying diagnosis in treatment-resistant epilepsy, and will review both basic and more advanced procedures/studies that may aid diagnosis.

Immuno- and antiinflammatory therapies in epileptic disorders

Several experimental and clinical studies demonstrated an immunologic basis for different forms of epilepsy. A wide range of immune abnormalities have been reported suggesting the existence of various subtypes of epileptic syndromes with different immunopathogenetic mechanisms. This evidence gives rise to the development of immunologic and immunomodulatory treatments such as usage of steroids, plasmapheresis, and intravenous immunoglobulins, which will be discussed briefly in this article.

Intravenous immunoglobulins for epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Epilepsy is a common neurological condition, with an estimated incidence of 50 per 100,000 persons. People with epilepsy may present with various types of immunological abnormalities, such as low serum IgA level, lack of IgG subclass and identification of certain types of antibodies. Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) treatment may represent a valuable approach and its efficacy has important implications for epilepsy management.

OBJECTIVES

To examine the effects of IVIg on the frequency and duration of seizures, quality of life and adverse effects, when used as monotherapy or as add-on treatment for people with epilepsy.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Epilepsy Group Specialized Register (14 June 2010), the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (Issue 2 of 4, The Cochrane Library, 2010), MEDLINE (1950 to June 2010), Web of Science (14 June 2010), Current Controlled Trials (11 June 2010), the National Research Register (NRR) archive (11 June 2010), the US National Institutes of Health (Clinicaltrials.gov) (11 June 2010) and reference lists of articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomized or quasi-randomized controlled trials of IVIg as monotherapy or add-on treatment in people with epilepsy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently assessed the trials for inclusion and extracted data. We contacted study authors for additional information. Outcomes included percentage of people rendered seizure-free, 50% or greater reduction in seizure frequency, adverse effects, treatment withdrawal and quality of life.

MAIN RESULTS

We included one study (61 patients). We found no randomized controlled trials that investigated the effects of IVIg monotherapy for epilepsy. The included study was a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-center trial which compared the treatment efficacy of IVIg as an add-on with a placebo add-on in patients with refractory epilepsy. There was no significant difference between IVIg and placebo in 50% or greater reduction in seizure frequency. The study reported a statistically significant effect for global assessment in favor of IVIg. No adverse effects were demonstrated.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

No reliable conclusions can be drawn regarding the efficacy of IVIg as a treatment for epilepsy. Further randomized controlled trials are needed.

The role of inflammation in epilepsy

Epilepsy is the third most common chronic brain disorder, and is characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate seizures. Despite progress in pharmacological and surgical treatments of epilepsy, relatively little is known about the processes leading to the generation of individual seizures, and about the mechanisms whereby a healthy brain is rendered epileptic. These gaps in our knowledge hamper the development of better preventive treatments and cures for the approximately 30% of epilepsy cases that prove resistant to current therapies. Here, we focus on the rapidly growing body of evidence that supports the involvement of inflammatory mediators-released by brain cells and peripheral immune cells-in both the origin of individual seizures and the epileptogenic process. We first describe aspects of brain inflammation and immunity, before exploring the evidence from clinical and experimental studies for a relationship between inflammation and epilepsy. Subsequently, we discuss how seizures cause inflammation, and whether such inflammation, in turn, influences the occurrence and severity of seizures, and seizure-related neuronal death. Further insight into the complex role of inflammation in the generation and exacerbation of epilepsy should yield new molecular targets for the design of antiepileptic drugs, which might not only inhibit the symptoms of this disorder, but also prevent or abrogate disease pathogenesis.

Pharmacologic agents for pediatric neuroimmune disorders

Autoimmune diseases make up a significant portion of the acute and chronic caseload of all pediatric neurologists. By comparing these diseases and their treatments side by side, common themes become evident. Therapeutic decisions follow patterns dependent on the clinical situation. Physicians must adapt therapy based on individual clinical responses. This article provides an overview of the current therapeutic options as they relate to the more common pediatric neuroimmune disorders.

Paediatric Hashimoto encephalopathy, refractory epilepsy and immunoglobulin treatment - unusual case report and review of the literature

BACKGROUND

 Hashimoto encephalopathy (HE) is a rare autoimmune disorder. It is defined as a 'corticosteroid-responsive encephalopathy associated with thyroiditis'.

CLINICAL OBSERVATION

  We describe a boy who suffered from HE, responded only to intravenous immunoglobulin therapy. This is the first case report of immunoglobulin therapy in paediatric HE.

CONCLUSION

 After review of the literature, we recommend that unexplained encephalopathy in children should lead to evaluation of thyroid autoantibody titres. Immunoglobulins should be considered.