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Shrestha S, Hong CW. Extracellular Mechanisms of Neutrophils in Immune Cell Crosstalk. Immune Netw 2023; 23:e38. [PMID: 37970234 PMCID: PMC10643328 DOI: 10.4110/in.2023.23.e38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are professional phagocytes that provide defense against invading pathogens through phagocytosis, degranulation, generation of ROS, and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Although long been considered as short-lived effector cells with limited biosynthetic activity, recent studies have revealed that neutrophils actively communicate with other immune cells. Neutrophils employ various types of soluble mediators, including granules, cytokines, and chemokines, for crosstalk with immune cells. Additionally, ROS and NETs, major arsenals of neutrophils, are utilized for intercellular communication. Furthermore, extracellular vesicles play a crucial role as mediators of neutrophil crosstalk. In this review, we highlight the extracellular mechanisms of neutrophils and their roles in crosstalk with other cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjeeb Shrestha
- Department of Physiology, CMRI, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea
| | - Chang-Won Hong
- Department of Physiology, CMRI, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu 41944, Korea
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2
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Li H, Niu J, Wang X, Niu M, Liao C. The Contribution of Antimicrobial Peptides to Immune Cell Function: A Review of Recent Advances. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2278. [PMID: 37765247 PMCID: PMC10535326 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of novel antimicrobial agents to replace antibiotics has become urgent due to the emergence of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), widely distributed in all kingdoms of life, present strong antimicrobial activity against a variety of bacteria, fungi, parasites, and viruses. The potential of AMPs as new alternatives to antibiotics has gradually attracted considerable interest. In addition, AMPs exhibit strong anticancer potential as well as anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity. Many studies have provided evidence that AMPs can recruit and activate immune cells, controlling inflammation. This review highlights the scientific literature focusing on evidence for the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of different AMPs in immune cells, including macrophages, monocytes, lymphocytes, mast cells, dendritic cells, neutrophils, and eosinophils. A variety of immunomodulatory characteristics, including the abilities to activate and differentiate immune cells, change the content and expression of inflammatory mediators, and regulate specific cellular functions and inflammation-related signaling pathways, are summarized and discussed in detail. This comprehensive review contributes to a better understanding of the role of AMPs in the regulation of the immune system and provides a reference for the use of AMPs as novel anti-inflammatory drugs for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanxiao Li
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Anmal Disease Prevention and Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (H.L.); (J.N.)
| | - Junhui Niu
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Anmal Disease Prevention and Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (H.L.); (J.N.)
| | - Xiaoli Wang
- College of Basic Medicine and Forensic Medicine, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China;
| | - Mingfu Niu
- College of Food and Bioengineering, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China;
| | - Chengshui Liao
- Luoyang Key Laboratory of Live Carrier Biomaterial and Anmal Disease Prevention and Control, College of Animal Science and Technology, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang 471023, China; (H.L.); (J.N.)
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3
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Lu F, Zhu Y, Zhang G, Liu Z. Renovation as innovation: Repurposing human antibacterial peptide LL-37 for cancer therapy. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:944147. [PMID: 36081952 PMCID: PMC9445486 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.944147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
In many organisms, antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) display wide activities in innate host defense against microbial pathogens. Mammalian AMPs include the cathelicidin and defensin families. LL37 is the only one member of the cathelicidin family of host defense peptides expressed in humans. Since its discovery, it has become clear that they have pleiotropic effects. In addition to its antibacterial properties, many studies have shown that LL37 is also involved in a wide variety of biological activities, including tissue repair, inflammatory responses, hemotaxis, and chemokine induction. Moreover, recent studies suggest that LL37 exhibits the intricate and contradictory effects in promoting or inhibiting tumor growth. Indeed, an increasing amount of evidence suggests that human LL37 including its fragments and analogs shows anticancer effects on many kinds of cancer cell lines, although LL37 is also involved in cancer progression. Focusing on recent information, in this review, we explore and summarize how LL37 contributes to anticancer effect as well as discuss the strategies to enhance delivery of this peptide and selectivity for cancer cells.
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4
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Martell EM, González-Garcia M, Ständker L, Otero-González AJ. Host defense peptides as immunomodulators: The other side of the coin. Peptides 2021; 146:170644. [PMID: 34464592 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Host defense peptides (HDPs) exhibit a broad range of antimicrobial and immunomodulatory activities. In this sense, both functions are like different sides of the same coin. The direct antimicrobial side was discovered first, and widely studied for the development of anti-infective therapies. In contrast, the immunomodulatory side was recognized later and in the last 20 years the interest in this field has been continuously growing. Different to their antimicrobial activities, the immunomodulatory activities of host defense peptides are more effective in vivo. They offer a great opportunity for new therapeutic applications in the fields of anti-infective therapy, chronic inflammatory diseases treatment, novel vaccine adjuvants development and anticancer immunotherapy. These immune related functions of HDPs includes chemoattraction of leukocytes, modulation of inflammation, enhancement of antigen presentation and polarization of adaptive immune responses. Our attempt with this review is to make a careful evaluation of different aspects of the less explored, but attractive immunomodulatory side of the HDP functional coin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto M Martell
- Center for Protein Studies, Faculty of Biology, Havana University, Cuba
| | | | - Ludger Ständker
- Core Facility Functional Peptidomics (CFP), Ulm University Medical Center, Ulm, Germany
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5
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The neutrophil antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin promotes Th17 differentiation. Nat Commun 2021; 12:1285. [PMID: 33627652 PMCID: PMC7904761 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-21533-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The host defence peptide cathelicidin (LL-37 in humans, mCRAMP in mice) is released from neutrophils by de-granulation, NETosis and necrotic death; it has potent anti-pathogen activity as well as being a broad immunomodulator. Here we report that cathelicidin is a powerful Th17 potentiator which enhances aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) and RORγt expression, in a TGF-β1-dependent manner. In the presence of TGF-β1, cathelicidin enhanced SMAD2/3 and STAT3 phosphorylation, and profoundly suppressed IL-2 and T-bet, directing T cells away from Th1 and into a Th17 phenotype. Strikingly, Th17, but not Th1, cells were protected from apoptosis by cathelicidin. We show that cathelicidin is released by neutrophils in mouse lymph nodes and that cathelicidin-deficient mice display suppressed Th17 responses during inflammation, but not at steady state. We propose that the neutrophil cathelicidin is required for maximal Th17 differentiation, and that this is one method by which early neutrophilia directs subsequent adaptive immune responses.
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6
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Vitale I, Yamazaki T, Wennerberg E, Sveinbjørnsson B, Rekdal Ø, Demaria S, Galluzzi L. Targeting Cancer Heterogeneity with Immune Responses Driven by Oncolytic Peptides. Trends Cancer 2021; 7:557-572. [PMID: 33446447 DOI: 10.1016/j.trecan.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Accumulating preclinical and clinical evidence indicates that high degrees of heterogeneity among malignant cells constitute a considerable obstacle to the success of cancer therapy. This calls for the development of approaches that operate - or enable established treatments to operate - despite such intratumoral heterogeneity (ITH). In this context, oncolytic peptides stand out as promising therapeutic tools based on their ability to drive immunogenic cell death associated with robust anticancer immune responses independently of ITH. We review the main molecular and immunological pathways engaged by oncolytic peptides, and discuss potential approaches to combine these agents with modern immunotherapeutics in support of superior tumor-targeting immunity and efficacy in patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilio Vitale
- Italian Institute for Genomic Medicine (IIGM), Istituto Di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico (IRCSS) Candiolo, Torino, Italy; Candiolo Cancer Institute, Fondazione del Piemonte per l'Oncologia (FPO)-IRCCS, Candiolo, Italy
| | - Takahiro Yamazaki
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Erik Wennerberg
- Division of Radiotherapy and Imaging, The Institute of Cancer Research, London, UK
| | - Baldur Sveinbjørnsson
- Lytix Biopharma, Oslo, Norway; Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway; Childhood Cancer Research Unit, Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Øystein Rekdal
- Lytix Biopharma, Oslo, Norway; Department of Medical Biology, University of Tromsø, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sandra Demaria
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Lorenzo Galluzzi
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA; Sandra and Edward Meyer Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Caryl and Israel Englander Institute for Precision Medicine, New York, NY, USA; Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Université de Paris, Paris, France.
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7
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Orchestration of Adaptive T Cell Responses by Neutrophil Granule Contents. Mediators Inflamm 2019; 2019:8968943. [PMID: 30983883 PMCID: PMC6431490 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8968943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 01/28/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in peripheral blood and respond rapidly to danger, infiltrating tissues within minutes of infectious or sterile injury. Neutrophils were long thought of as simple killers, but now we recognise them as responsive cells able to adapt to inflammation and orchestrate subsequent events with some sophistication. Here, we discuss how these rapid responders release mediators which influence later adaptive T cell immunity through influences on DC priming and directly on the T cells themselves. We consider how the release of granule contents by neutrophils—through NETosis or degranulation—is one way in which the innate immune system directs the phenotype of the adaptive immune response.
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8
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BCG-induced formation of neutrophil extracellular traps play an important role in bladder cancer treatment. Clin Immunol 2019; 201:4-14. [PMID: 30771501 DOI: 10.1016/j.clim.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) is one of the most effective treatments for bladder cancer. Little attention has been paid to the possible role of neutrophils in BCG immunotherapy. In this study, we examined neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) formation induced by BCG stimulation, and found that BCG-induced NETs exerted cytotoxicity, induced apoptosis and cell-cycle arrest, and inhibited migration in bladder tumor cells. BCG-activated tumor cells but not non-activated ones elicited NETs formation, in which IL-8 and TNF-α from activated tumor cells both took effect. Moreover, NETs activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) exhibited a higher expression of CD4 and Th1 cytokines. Additionally, the role of NETs in vivo contributed to the recruitment of T cells and monocytes-macrophages and tissue damage, thus preventing tumor growth. NETs proteins mainly caused these effects on tumor and cellular immunity. In conclusion, we demonstrated a novel immunoregulatory role for NETs in the early stages of BCG immunotherapy.
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9
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Thomi R, Schlapbach C, Yawalkar N, Simon D, Yerly D, Hunger RE. Elevated levels of the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 in hidradenitis suppurativa are associated with a Th1/Th17 immune response. Exp Dermatol 2018; 27:172-177. [PMID: 29222824 DOI: 10.1111/exd.13482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Hidradenitis suppurativa (HS) is an inflammatory skin disease with poorly understood immunopathogenic mechanisms. LL-37 is an antimicrobial peptide, which is transcribed from the CAMP (cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide) gene. Previous reports showed upregulated levels of CAMP and LL-37 in HS lesions, and therefore, the aim of this study was to compare levels of LL-37 in HS to other inflammatory skin diseases and to establish immunomodulatory functions of LL-37 in HS. We confirm an upregulation of the LL-37 peptide in lesional HS skin with comparable levels as in psoriasis patients and are able to positively correlate the presence of LL-37 in HS with the presence of T cells, macrophages, neutrophils, IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-23, TNF-α, IL-32 and IL-1β. Mechanistically, LL-37 boosts the proliferation of unspecifically activated CD4+ T cells via an increased calcium signalling independent of antigen-presenting cells. Targeting LL-37 may therefore represent a new therapeutic option for the treatment of this recalcitrant disease, but it has to be kept in mind that LL-37 also has an antimicrobial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahel Thomi
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christoph Schlapbach
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nikhil Yawalkar
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Dagmar Simon
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Yerly
- Department of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Robert E Hunger
- Department of Dermatology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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10
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Banaschewski BJH, Baer B, Arsenault C, Jazey T, Veldhuizen EJA, Delport J, Gooyers T, Lewis JF, Haagsman HP, Veldhuizen RAW, Yamashita C. The Antibacterial and Anti-inflammatory Activity of Chicken Cathelicidin-2 combined with Exogenous Surfactant for the Treatment of Cystic Fibrosis-Associated Pathogens. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15545. [PMID: 29138462 PMCID: PMC5686076 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15558-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is characterized by recurrent airway infections with antibiotic-resistant bacteria and chronic inflammation. Chicken cathelicin-2 (CATH-2) has been shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity against antibiotic-resistant bacteria and to reduce inflammation. In addition, exogenous pulmonary surfactant has been suggested to enhance pulmonary drug delivery. It was hypothesized that CATH-2 when combined with an exogenous surfactant delivery vehicle, bovine lipid extract surfactant (BLES), would exhibit antimicrobial activity against CF-derived bacteria and downregulate inflammation. Twelve strains of CF-pathogens were exposed to BLES+CATH-2 in vitro and killing curves were obtained to determine bactericidal activity. Secondly, heat-killed bacteria were administered in vivo to elicit a pro-inflammatory response with either a co-administration or delayed administration of BLES+CATH-2 to assess the antimicrobial-independent, anti-inflammatory properties of BLES+CATH-2. CATH-2 alone exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against all clinical strains of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, while BLES+CATH-2 demonstrated a reduction, but significant antimicrobial activity against bacterial isolates. Furthermore, BLES+CATH-2 reduced inflammation in vivo when either co-administered with killed bacteria or after delayed administration. The use of a host-defense peptide combined with an exogenous surfactant compound, BLES+CATH-2, is shown to exhibit antimicrobial activity against antibiotic-resistant CF bacterial isolates and reduce inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brandon Baer
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christina Arsenault
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Teah Jazey
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Edwin J A Veldhuizen
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johan Delport
- London Health Sciences Centre, London, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - James F Lewis
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Henk P Haagsman
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Division of Molecular Host Defense, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ruud A W Veldhuizen
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Medicine, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Cory Yamashita
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada. .,Department of Medicine, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.
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11
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Gupta S, Winglee K, Gallo R, Bishai WR. Bacterial subversion of cAMP signalling inhibits cathelicidin expression, which is required for innate resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. J Pathol 2017; 242:52-61. [PMID: 28097645 PMCID: PMC5397332 DOI: 10.1002/path.4878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides such as cathelicidins are important components of innate immune defence against inhaled microorganisms, and have shown antimicrobial activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis in in vitro models. Despite this, little is known about the regulation and expression of cathelicidin during tuberculosis in vivo. We sought to determine whether the cathelicidin-related antimicrobial peptide gene (Cramp), the murine functional homologue of the human cathelicidin gene (CAMP or LL-37), is required for regulation of protective immunity during M. tuberculosis infection in vivo. We used Cramp-/- mice in a validated model of pulmonary tuberculosis, and conducted cell-based assays with macrophages from these mice. We evaluated the in vivo susceptibility of Cramp-/- mice to infection, and also dissected various pro-inflammatory immune responses against M. tuberculosis. We observed increased susceptibility of Cramp-/- mice to M. tuberculosis as compared with wild-type mice. Macrophages from Cramp-/- mice were unable to control M. tuberculosis growth in an in vitro infection model, were deficient in intracellular calcium influx, and were defective in stimulating T cells. Additionally, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells from Cramp-/- mice produced less interferon-β upon stimulation. Furthermore, bacterial-derived cAMP modulated cathelicidin expression in macrophages. Our results demonstrate that cathelicidin is required for innate resistance to M. tuberculosis in a relevant animal model and is a key mediator in regulation of the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines by calcium and cyclic nucleotides. Copyright © 2017 Pathological Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashank Gupta
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Department of Medicine, JHU, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
| | - Kathryn Winglee
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Department of Medicine, JHU, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Richard Gallo
- University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - William R Bishai
- Center for Tuberculosis Research, Department of Medicine, JHU, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Chevy Chase, Maryland, USA
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12
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Christiansen SH, Zhang X, Juul-Madsen K, Hvam ML, Vad BS, Behrens MA, Thygesen IL, Jalilian B, Pedersen JS, Howard KA, Otzen DE, Vorup-Jensen T. The random co-polymer glatiramer acetate rapidly kills primary human leukocytes through sialic-acid-dependent cell membrane damage. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2017; 1859:425-437. [PMID: 28064019 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2017.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Revised: 12/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
The formulation glatiramer acetate (GA) is widely used in therapy of multiple sclerosis. GA consists of random copolymers of four amino acids, in ratios that produce a predominantly positive charge and an amphipathic character. With the extraordinary complexity of the drug, several pharmacological modes-of-action were suggested, but so far none, which rationalizes the cationicity and amphipathicity as part of the mode-of-action. Here, we report that GA rapidly kills primary human T lymphocytes and, less actively, monocytes. LL-37 is a cleavage product of human cathelicidin with important roles in innate immunity. It shares the positive charge and amphipathic character of GA, and, as shown here, also the ability to kill human leukocyte. The cytotoxicity of both compounds depends on sialic acid in the cell membrane. The killing was associated with the generation of CD45+ debris, derived from cell membrane deformation. Nanoparticle tracking analysis confirmed the formation of such debris, even at low GA concentrations. Electric cell-substrate impedance sensing measurements also recorded stable alterations in T lymphocytes following such treatment. LL-37 forms oligomers through weak hydrophobic contacts, which is critical for the lytic properties. In our study, SAXS showed that GA also forms this type of contacts. Taken together, our study offers new insight on the immunomodulatory mode-of-action of positively charged co-polymers. The comparison of LL-37 and GA highlights a consistent requirement of certain oligomeric and chemical properties to support cytotoxic effects of cationic polymers targeting human leukocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stig Hill Christiansen
- Dept. of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, The Bartholin Building (1240), Bartholins Allé 6, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Xianwei Zhang
- Dept. of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, The Bartholin Building (1240), Bartholins Allé 6, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Kristian Juul-Madsen
- Dept. of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, The Bartholin Building (1240), Bartholins Allé 6, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Michael Lykke Hvam
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Brian Stougaard Vad
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Manja Annette Behrens
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Ida Lysgaard Thygesen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Dept. of Micro- and Nanotechnology, Technical University of Denmark, Ørsteds Plads, Building 345C, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Babak Jalilian
- Dept. of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, The Bartholin Building (1240), Bartholins Allé 6, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Jan Skov Pedersen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Kenneth A Howard
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Denmark.
| | - Daniel E Otzen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Thomas Vorup-Jensen
- Dept. of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, The Bartholin Building (1240), Bartholins Allé 6, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, DK-8000 Aarhus C, Denmark; The Lundbeck Foundation Nanomedicine Center for Individualized Management of Tissue Damage and Regeneration (LUNA), Aarhus University, Denmark; MEMBRANES Research Center, Aarhus University, Denmark; Center for Neurodegenerative Inflammation Prevention (NEURODIN), Aarhus University, Denmark.
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13
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Donis-Maturano L, Sánchez-Torres LE, Cerbulo-Vázquez A, Chacón-Salinas R, García-Romo GS, Orozco-Uribe MC, Yam-Puc JC, González-Jiménez MA, Paredes-Vivas YL, Calderón-Amador J, Estrada-Parra S, Estrada-García I, Flores-Romo L. Prolonged exposure to neutrophil extracellular traps can induce mitochondrial damage in macrophages and dendritic cells. SPRINGERPLUS 2015; 4:161. [PMID: 25883887 PMCID: PMC4392041 DOI: 10.1186/s40064-015-0932-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Neutrophils are one the earliest, crucial innate defenses against innumerable pathogens. Their main microbicidal activities include phagocytosis and degranulation, with many pharmacologically active molecules contributing to inflammation. Recently, a novel antimicrobial mechanism was discovered; the Neutrophil Extracelullar Traps (NETs) formed by extrusion of DNA and associated molecules (histones, elastase, antimicrobial peptides, among others) which trap and kill microorganisms. Since NETs were recently described, research has focused on their induction and microbicidal properties, and recently on disease involvement. However, the functional consequences of NETs interacting with other immune cells, either resident or recruited during early inflammation, have not been assessed. We therefore investigated the consequences of exposing two major APCs, macrophages (Mfs) and conventional Dendritic Cells (cDCs) to NETs. Our data revealed that at early times (30 min), both Antigen Presenting Cells (APCs) showed induction of important costimulatory molecules (CD80, CD86). Unexpectedly, however, at later times (6 and 24 hours) NETs apparently triggered a cell death process in these APCs by a caspase- and Apoptosis induced factor (AIF)-dependent pathway, suggesting mitochondrial damage. By rhodamine-123 labelling we found that in both APCs, relatively prolonged exposure to NETs or their components importantly decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential. Ultrastructural analysis confirmed mitochondrial alterations in both APCs. Our results would suggest that early in inflammation, NETs can activate the two main APCs (Mfs and cDCs), but as the process continues, NETs can then initiate apoptosis of these cells through mitochondrial harm. Conceivable, this “late” induction of cell death in these two APCs might start limiting an ongoing inflammatory process to control it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Donis-Maturano
- Department of Cell Biology, Cinvestav-IPN. AV. IPN No 2508, Zacatenco, C.P. 07330 D.F México
| | | | - Arturo Cerbulo-Vázquez
- Department of Cell Biology, INPer., Montes Urales 800, Lomas Virreyes, C.P.11000 D.F México
| | | | - Gina S García-Romo
- Department of Nephrology, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333 ZA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mariana C Orozco-Uribe
- Department of Cell Biology, Cinvestav-IPN. AV. IPN No 2508, Zacatenco, C.P. 07330 D.F México
| | - Juan C Yam-Puc
- Department of Cell Biology, Cinvestav-IPN. AV. IPN No 2508, Zacatenco, C.P. 07330 D.F México
| | | | | | - Juana Calderón-Amador
- Department of Cell Biology, Cinvestav-IPN. AV. IPN No 2508, Zacatenco, C.P. 07330 D.F México
| | | | | | - Leopoldo Flores-Romo
- Department of Cell Biology, Cinvestav-IPN. AV. IPN No 2508, Zacatenco, C.P. 07330 D.F México
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14
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Pearson JD, Zhang J, Wu Z, Thew KD, Rowe KJ, Bacani JTC, Ingham RJ. Expression of granzyme B sensitizes ALK+ ALCL tumour cells to apoptosis-inducing drugs. Mol Cancer 2014; 13:199. [PMID: 25168906 PMCID: PMC4158053 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-13-199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The serine protease Granzyme B (GzB) is primarily expressed by cytotoxic T lymphocytes and natural killer cells, and functions in allowing these cells to induce apoptosis in virally-infected or transformed cells. Cancers of both lymphoid and non-lymphoid origin also express GzB, and in some cases this expression has been linked to pathogenesis or sensitizing tumour cells to cell death. For example, GzB expression in urothelial carcinoma was implicated in promoting tumour cell invasion, whereas its expression in nasal-type NK/T lymphomas was found to correlate with increased apoptosis. GzB expression is also a hallmark of the non-Hodgkin lymphoma, anaplastic lymphoma kinase-positive, anaplastic large cell lymphoma (ALK+ ALCL). Given the fact that ALK+ ALCL exhibits high levels of apoptosis and is typically responsive to conventional chemotherapy, we examined whether GzB expression might play a role in sensitizing ALK+ ALCL tumour cells to apoptosis. Methods ALK+ ALCL cell lines stably expressing GzB or non-targeting (control) shRNA were generated and apoptosis was examined by anti-PARP western blotting and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labelling. Both spontaneous apoptosis and apoptosis in response to treatment with staurosporine or doxorubicin were investigated. In order to assess whether additional granzymes might be important in promoting cell death in ALK+ ALCL, we examined whether other human granzymes were expressed in ALK+ ALCL cell lines using reverse-transcriptase PCR and western blotting. Results Expression of several GzB shRNAs in multiple ALK+ ALCL cell lines resulted in a significant decrease in GzB levels and activity. While spontaneous apoptosis was similar in ALK+ ALCL cell lines expressing either GzB or control shRNA, GzB shRNA-expressing cells were less sensitive to staurosporine or doxorubicin-induced apoptosis as evidenced by reduced PARP cleavage and decreased DNA fragmentation. Furthermore, we found that GzB is the only granzyme that is expressed at significant levels in ALK+ ALCL cell lines. Conclusions Our findings are the first to demonstrate that GzB expression sensitizes ALK+ ALCL cell lines to drug-induced apoptosis. This suggests that GzB expression may be a factor contributing to the favourable response of this lymphoma to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Robert J Ingham
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology and Li Ka Shing Institute of Virology, University of Alberta, Katz Group Centre for Pharmacy and Health Research, University of Alberta, Edmonton AB T6G 2E1, Canada.
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15
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Barlow PG, Findlay EG, Currie SM, Davidson DJ. Antiviral potential of cathelicidins. Future Microbiol 2014; 9:55-73. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.13.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT: The global burden of morbidity and mortality arising from viral infections is high; however, the development of effective therapeutics has been slow. As our understanding of innate immunity has expanded over recent years, knowledge of natural host defenses against viral infections has started to offer potential for novel therapeutic strategies. An area of current research interest is in understanding the roles played by naturally occurring cationic host defense peptides, such as the cathelicidins, in these innate antiviral host defenses across different species. This research also has the potential to inform the design of novel synthetic antiviral peptide analogs and/or provide rationale for therapies aimed at boosting the natural production of these peptides. In this review, we will discuss our knowledge of the antiviral activities of cathelicidins, an important family of cationic host defense peptides, and consider the implications for novel antiviral therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter G Barlow
- Health, Life & Social Sciences, Edinburgh Napier University, Sighthill Campus, Edinburgh, EH11 4BN, UK
| | - Emily Gwyer Findlay
- University of Edinburgh/MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Silke M Currie
- University of Edinburgh/MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Donald J Davidson
- University of Edinburgh/MRC Centre for Inflammation Research, Queen’s Medical Research Institute, The University of Edinburgh, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
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16
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Li X, Zhang G, An G, Liu S, Lai Y. Expression, purification and anticancer analysis of GST-tagged human perforin and granzyme B proteins in human laryngeal cancer Hep-2 cells. Protein Expr Purif 2013; 95:38-43. [PMID: 24291445 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2013.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Revised: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 11/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Granzyme B and perforin, two major effector molecules in the granule-mediated cytolytic pathway, are thought to be involved in suppression of tumor progression. In this study, the pGEX-4T-1 expression vector was used to express full-length human perforin or granzyme B as a GST-tagged fusion protein in Escherichia coli (E. coli). GST-tagged proteins were induced with IPTG and purified by GSTrap 4B columns. Purified fusion proteins migrated at the predicted molecular mass on SDS-PAGE and were recognized by specific antibodies. Moreover, the fusion proteins can induce apoptosis and directly inhibit the growth of human laryngeal cancer Hep-2 cells in vitro. These results suggest that active perforin and granzyme B fusion proteins can be produced in E. coli and exhibit anticancer potential in laryngeal cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuying Li
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpudadao Xi Road, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Guang Zhang
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpudadao Xi Road, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Guijie An
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpudadao Xi Road, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Sha Liu
- Institute of Genomic Medicine, College of Pharmacy, Jinan University, 601 Huangpudadao Xi Road, Guangzhou 510632, China
| | - Yandong Lai
- Institute for Chemical Carcinogenesis, Guangzhou Medical University, 195 Dongfeng Xi Road, Guangzhou 510182, China.
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17
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Immune modulation by multifaceted cationic host defense (antimicrobial) peptides. Nat Chem Biol 2013; 9:761-8. [DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.1393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 417] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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18
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Lee WY, Savage JR, Zhang J, Jia W, Oottamasathien S, Prestwich GD. Prevention of anti-microbial peptide LL-37-induced apoptosis and ATP release in the urinary bladder by a modified glycosaminoglycan. PLoS One 2013; 8:e77854. [PMID: 24204996 PMCID: PMC3813730 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0077854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 09/04/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Interstitial cystitis (IC), often referred to in combination with painful bladder syndrome, is a chronic inflammatory disease of the bladder. Current therapies primarily focus on replenishing urothelial glycosaminoglycan (GAG) layer using GAG analogs and managing pain with supportive therapies. However, the elusive etiology of IC and the lack of animal models to study the disease have been major hurdles developing more effective therapeutics. Previously, we showed an increased urinary concentration of antimicrobial peptide LL-37 in spina bifida patients and used LL-37 to develop a mouse model of cystitis that mimics important clinical findings of IC. Here we investigate (1) the molecular mechanism of LL-37 induced cystitis in cultured human urothelial cells and in mice, (2) the protective effects of GM-0111, a modified GAG, within the context of this mechanism, (3) the physiological and molecular markers that correlate with the severity of the inflammation, and (4) the protective effects of several GAGs using these biomarkers in our LL-37 induced cystitis model. We find that LL-37 quickly induces release of ATP and apoptosis in the urothelium. These changes can be inhibited by a chemically-modified GAG, GM-0111. Furthermore, we also find that GAG analogs provide varying degrees of protection against LL-37 challenge in mice. These findings suggest that GM-0111 and possibly GAG molecules prevent the development of cystitis by blocking the apoptosis and the concurrent release of ATP from the urothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won Yong Lee
- GlycoMira Therapeutics, Inc. Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Justin R. Savage
- GlycoMira Therapeutics, Inc. Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Jianxing Zhang
- GlycoMira Therapeutics, Inc. Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Center for Therapeutic Biomaterials, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Wanjian Jia
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Center for Therapeutic Biomaterials, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Siam Oottamasathien
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Center for Therapeutic Biomaterials, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Surgery and Division of Pediatric Urology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
| | - Glenn D. Prestwich
- GlycoMira Therapeutics, Inc. Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Center for Therapeutic Biomaterials, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah, United States of America
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19
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Alba A, López-Abarrategui C, Otero-González AJ. Host defense peptides: an alternative as antiinfective and immunomodulatory therapeutics. Biopolymers 2013. [PMID: 23193590 DOI: 10.1002/bip.22076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Host defense peptides are conserved components of innate immune response present among all classes of life. These peptides are potent, broad spectrum antimicrobial agents with potential as novel therapeutic compounds. Also, the ability of host defense peptides to modulate immunity is an emerging therapeutic concept since its selective modulation is a novel antiinfective strategy. Their mechanisms of action and the fundamental differences between pathogens and host cells surfaces mostly lead to a not widely extended microbial resistance and to a lower toxicity toward host cells. Biological libraries and rational design are novel tools for developing such molecules with promising applications as therapeutic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annia Alba
- Departamento de Parasitología, Instituto de Medicina Tropical "Pedro Kourí," La Habana, Cuba
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20
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Ren SX, Cheng ASL, To KF, Tong JHM, Li MS, Shen J, Shen J, Wong CCM, Zhang L, Chan RLY, Wang XJ, Ng SSM, Chiu LCM, Marquez VE, Gallo RL, Chan FKL, Yu J, Sung JJY, Wu WKK, Cho CH. Host immune defense peptide LL-37 activates caspase-independent apoptosis and suppresses colon cancer. Cancer Res 2012; 72:6512-23. [PMID: 23100468 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-12-2359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Cathelicidins are a family of bacteriocidal polypeptides secreted by macrophages and polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN). LL-37, the only human cathelicidin, has been implicated in tumorigenesis, but there has been limited investigation of its expression and function in cancer. Here, we report that LL-37 activates a p53-mediated, caspase-independent apoptotic cascade that contributes to suppression of colon cancer. LL-37 was expressed strongly in normal colon mucosa but downregulated in colon cancer tissues, where in both settings its expression correlated with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated dUTP nick end labeling-positive apoptotic cells. Exposure of colon cancer cells to LL-37 induced phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA fragmentation in a manner independent of caspase activation. Apoptogenic function was mediated by nuclear translocation of the proapoptotic factors, apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and endonuclease G (EndoG), through p53-dependent upregulation of Bax and Bak and downregulation of Bcl-2 via a pertussis toxin-sensitive G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) pathway. Correspondingly, colonic mucosa of cathelicidin-deficient mice exhibited reduced expression of p53, Bax, and Bak and increased expression of Bcl-2 together with a lower basal level of apoptosis. Cathelicidin-deficient mice exhibited an increased susceptibility to azoxymethane-induced colon tumorigenesis, establishing pathophysiologic relevance in colon cancer. Collectively, our findings show that LL-37 activates a GPCR-p53-Bax/Bak/Bcl-2 signaling cascade that triggers AIF/EndoG-mediated apoptosis in colon cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shun X Ren
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
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Tillack K, Breiden P, Martin R, Sospedra M. T lymphocyte priming by neutrophil extracellular traps links innate and adaptive immune responses. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 188:3150-9. [PMID: 22351936 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Polymorphonuclear neutrophils constitute the first line of defense against infections. Among their strategies to eliminate pathogens they release neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), being chromatin fibers decorated with antimicrobial proteins. NETs trap and kill pathogens very efficiently, thereby minimizing tissue damage. Furthermore, NETs modulate inflammatory responses by activating plasmacytoid dendritic cells. In this study, we show that NETs released by human neutrophils can directly prime T cells by reducing their activation threshold. NETs-mediated priming increases T cell responses to specific Ags and even to suboptimal stimuli, which would not induce a response in resting T cells. T cell priming mediated by NETs requires NETs/cell contact and TCR signaling, but unexpectedly we could not demonstrate a role of TLR9 in this mechanism. NETs-mediated T cell activation adds to the list of neutrophil functions and demonstrates a novel link between innate and adaptive immune responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kati Tillack
- Institute for Neuroimmunology and Clinical Multiple Sclerosis Research, Center for Molecular Neurobiology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20251 Hamburg, Germany
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22
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Koprivnjak T, Peschel A. Bacterial resistance mechanisms against host defense peptides. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011; 68:2243-54. [PMID: 21560069 PMCID: PMC11115334 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-011-0716-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 04/26/2011] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Host defense peptides and proteins are important components of the innate host defense against pathogenic microorganisms. They target negatively charged bacterial surfaces and disrupt microbial cytoplasmic membranes, which ultimately leads to bacterial destruction. Throughout evolution, pathogens devised several mechanisms to protect themselves from deleterious damage of host defense peptides. These strategies include (a) inactivation and cleavage of host defense peptides by production of host defense binding proteins and proteases, (b) repulsion of the peptides by alteration of pathogen's surface charge employing modifications by amino acids or amino sugars of anionic molecules (e.g., teichoic acids, lipid A and phospholipids), (c) alteration of bacterial membrane fluidity, and (d) expulsion of the peptides using multi drug pumps. Together with bacterial regulatory network(s) that regulate expression and activity of these mechanisms, they represent attractive targets for development of novel antibacterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomaz Koprivnjak
- Department of Biotechnology, National Institute of Chemistry Slovenia, Hajdrihova 19, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia,
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