Caveolin-1 promotes pituitary adenoma cells migration and invasion by regulating the interaction between EGR1 and KLF5

Approaches based on natural products and miRNAs in pituitary adenomas: unveiling therapeutic intervention

Pituitary adenomas (PAs) are tumors originating in the pituitary gland, a small gland located at the base of the brain. They are the most common type of pituitary tumor, affecting approximately 1 in 10 people over their lifetime. Common symptoms include headaches, vision problems, hormonal imbalances, and weight changes. Treatment options depend on the type and size of the adenoma and may consist of medication, surgery, radiation therapy, or a combination. PAs are typically benign and slow-growing, but they can cause significant health issues if left untreated. Proper diagnosis and management by an experienced multidisciplinary team is important for achieving the best outcomes. Natural compounds like celastrol, curcumin, quercetin, apigenin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and genistein have shown the ability to inhibit cell growth, promote cell death, and suppress hormone activity in pituitary tumor cells, suggesting their potential as alternative or complementary treatments for PAs. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a kind of tiny RNA molecules that do not code for proteins and have a vital function in controlling gene expression. These 21-23 nucleotide-long molecules regulate gene expression by binding to complementary sequences in mRNA molecules, leading to mRNA degradation. miRNAs participate in a wide range of biological activities, including apoptosis, metastasis, differentiation, and proliferation. The research indicates that miRNAs play a crucial role in the pathogenesis, therapeutic approaches, diagnosis, and prognosis of PAs. This review article will provide a comprehensive analysis of the current understanding of the efficacy of naturally derived anti-cancer agents in the treatment of PAs. Furthermore, the study provides a comprehensive assessment of the miRNAs in PAs, their role in the development of PAs, and their potential application in the treatment of the condition.

Non-coding RNAs and exosomal non-coding RNAs in pituitary adenoma

Pituitary adenoma (PA) is the third most common primary intracranial tumor in terms of overall disease incidence. Although they are benign tumors, they can have a variety of clinical symptoms, but are mostly asymptomatic, which often leads to diagnosis at an advanced stage when surgical intervention is ineffective. Earlier identification of PA could reduce morbidity and allow better clinical management of the affected patients. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) do not generally code for proteins, but can modulate biological processes at the post-transcriptional level through a variety of molecular mechanisms. An increased number of ncRNA expression profiles have been found in PAs. Therefore, understanding the expression patterns of different ncRNAs could be a promising method for developing non-invasive biomarkers. This review summarizes the expression patterns of dysregulated ncRNAs (microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, and circular RNAs) involved in PA, which could one day serve as innovative biomarkers or therapeutic targets for the treatment of this neoplasia. We also discuss the potential molecular pathways by which the dysregulated ncRNAs could cause PA and affect its progression.

MicroRNA (miR)-124: A Promising Therapeutic Gateway for Oncology

MicroRNA (miR) are a class of small non-coding RNA that are involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation. Altered expression of miR has been associated with several pathological conditions. MicroRNA-124 (miR-124) is an abundantly expressed miR in the brain as well as the thymus, lymph nodes, bone marrow, and peripheral blood mono-nuclear cells. It plays a key role in the regulation of the host immune system. Emerging studies show that dysregulated expression of miR-124 is a hallmark in several cancer types and it has been attributed to the progression of these malignancies. In this review, we present a comprehensive summary of the role of miR-124 as a promising therapeutic gateway in oncology.

MicroRNA-145-5p modulates Krüppel-like factor 5 and inhibits cell proliferation, migration, and invasion in nasopharyngeal carcinoma

Background

In several human cancers, Krüppel-like factor 5 (KLF5), a zinc finger transcription factor, can contribute to both tumor progression or suppression; however, the precise role of KLF5 in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) remains poorly understood. In this study, the association between KLF5 and microRNA-145-5p (miR-145-5p) in NPC cells was elucidated.

Results

Our results showed that KLF5 expression was up-regulated in NPC group compared to normal group. We found that KLF5 exhibited an oncogenic role in NPC cells. The upregulation of miR-145-5p inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells. It was observed that miR-145-5p could down-regulate the mRNA and protein expression of KLF5 in NPC cell lines. Additionally, the activity of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), a migration marker, was regulated by miR-145-5p and KLF5 in NPC cells.

Conclusions

The results of this study indicated that miR-145-5p could repress the proliferation, migration, and invasion of NPC cells via KLF5/FAK regulation, and could be a potential therapeutic target for patients with NPC.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12860-022-00430-9.

Identification of the OA-related metabolism-related genes, corresponding transcription factors, relevant pathways, and specific bioactive small molecules

Metabolic alteration of articular cartilage is associated with the pathogenesis of Osteoarthritis (OA). This study aims to identify the metabolism-related genes, corresponding transcription factors (TFs), and relevant pathways. Overall, RNA sequencing profiles of articular cartilage were collected from the GEO database. Metabolism-related genes and OA-related hallmarks were collected from the MSigDB v7.1. Differential expression analysis, Gene Ontology (GO), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis, and Gene Set Variation Analysis (GSVA) were conducted to identify pathways or hallmarks that were related to the pathogenesis of OA. The Pearson correlation analysis was used to establish the regulatory network among transcription factors, metabolism-related genes, and hallmarks. To further confirm the regulation of the identified transcription factors, Chromatin Immunoprecipitation-sequencing (ChIP-seq) was conducted, and single-cell sequencing was used to locate the cell clusters. Connectivity Map (CM) analysis were also conducted to identify the potential specific bioactive small molecules targeting the metabolic alteration of osteoarthritis. scTPA database was used to detect activated signaling pathways. Collectively, a total of 74 and 38 differentially expressed metabolism-related genes and TFs were retrieved. Skeletal system development, extracellular matrix, and cell adhesion molecule binding were important pathways in GO analysis. Human papillomavirus infection, PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, and Human T-cell leukemia virus 1 infection were the top 3 pathways in KEGG. 7 and 12 hallmarks were down- and up-regulated in GSVA, respectively. Ten bioactive small molecules may be potential treatments of OA by regulating the metabolism of articular cartilage. ChIP-seq analysis showed high relativity between transcription factors and their target genes. Furthermore, single-cell sequencing confirms the high expression of identified transcription factors in chondrocytes. To conclude, we established a comprehensive network integrated with transcription factors, metabolism-related genes, and hallmarks.

Apolipoprotein D as a Potential Biomarker and Construction of a Transcriptional Regulatory-Immune Network Associated with Osteoarthritis by Weighted Gene Coexpression Network Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Synovial inflammation influences the progression of osteoarthritis (OA). Herein, we aimed to identify potential biomarkers and analyze transcriptional regulatory-immune mechanism of synovitis in OA using weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA).

DESIGN

A data set of OA synovium samples (GSE55235) was analyzed based on WGCNA. The most significant module with OA was identified and function annotation of the module was performed, following which the hub genes of the module were identified using Pearson correlation and a protein-protein interaction network was constructed. A transcriptional regulatory network of hub genes was constructed using the TRRUST database. The immune cell infiltration of OA samples was evaluated using the single-sample Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (ssGSEA) method. The hub genes coexpressed in multiple tissues were then screened out using data sets of synovium, cartilage, chondrocyte, subchondral bone, and synovial fluid samples. Finally, transcriptional factors and coexpressed hub genes were validated via experiments.

RESULTS

The turquoise module of GSE55235 was identified via WGCNA. Functional annotation analysis showed that "mineral absorption" and "FoxO signaling pathway" were mostly enriched in the module. JUN, EGR1, FOSB, and KLF4 acted as central nodes in protein-protein interaction network and transcription factors to connect several target genes. "Activated B cell," "activated CD4T cell," "eosinophil," "neutrophil," and "type 17 T helper cell" showed high immune infiltration, while FOSB, KLF6, and MYBL2 showed significant negative correlation with type 17 T helper cell.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that the expression level of apolipoprotein D (APOD) was correlated with OA. Furthermore, transcriptional regulatory-immune network was constructed, which may contribute to OA therapy.

The Emerging Role of Non-Coding RNAs in Pituitary Gland Tumors and Meningioma

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs) are non-coding transcripts which are involved in the pathogenesis of pituitary gland tumors. LncRNAs that participate in the pathogenesis of pituitary gland tumors mainly serve as sponges for miRNAs. CLRN1-AS1/miR-217, XIST/miR-424-5p, H19/miR-93a, LINC00473/miR-502-3p, SNHG7/miR-449a, MEG8/miR-454-3p, MEG3/miR-23b-3p, MEG3/miR-376B-3P, SNHG6/miR-944, PCAT6/miR-139-3p, lncRNA-m433s1/miR-433, TUG1/miR-187-3p, SNHG1/miR-187-3p, SNHG1/miR-302, SNHG1/miR-372, SNHG1/miR-373, and SNHG1/miR-520 are identified lncRNA/miRNA pairs that are involved in this process. Hsa_circ_0001368 and circOMA1 are two examples of circRNAs that contribute to the pathogenesis of pituitary gland tumors. Meanwhile, SNHG1, LINC00702, LINC00460, and MEG3 have been found to partake in the pathogenesis of meningioma. In the current review, we describe the role of non-coding RNAs in two types of brain tumors, i.e., pituitary tumors and meningioma.

MicroRNAs as Potential Biomarkers in Pituitary Adenomas

Pituitary adenomas (PAs) are one of the most common lesions of intracranial neoplasms, occurring in approximately 15% of the general population. They are typically benign, although some adenomas show aggressive behavior, exhibiting rapid growth, drug resistance, and invasion of surrounding tissues. Despite ongoing improvements in diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, late first diagnosis is common, and patients with PAs are prone to relapse. Therefore, earlier diagnosis and prevention of recurrence are of importance to improve patient care. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short non-coding single stranded RNAs that regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. An increasing number of studies indicate that a deregulation of their expression patterns is related with pituitary tumorigenesis, suggesting that these small molecules could play a critical role in contributing to tumorigenesis and the onset of these tumors by acting either as oncosuppressors or as oncogenes, depending on the biological context. This paper provides an overview of miRNAs involved in PA tumorigenesis, which might serve as novel potential diagnostic and prognostic non-invasive biomarkers, and for the future development of miRNA-based therapeutic strategies for PAs.

Genomic and molecular characterization of pituitary adenoma pathogenesis: review and translational opportunities

OBJECTIVE

Innovations in genomics, epigenomics, and transcriptomics now lay the groundwork for therapeutic interventions against neoplastic disease. In the past 30 years, the molecular pathogenesis of pituitary adenomas has been characterized. This enhanced understanding of the biology of pituitary tumors has potential to impact current treatment paradigms, and there exists significant translational potential for these results. In this review the authors summarize the results of genomics and molecular biology investigations into pituitary adenoma pathogenesis and behavior and discuss opportunities to translate basic science findings into clinical benefit.

METHODS

The authors searched the PubMed and MEDLINE databases by using combinations of the keywords "pituitary adenoma," "genomics," "pathogenesis," and "epigenomics." From the initial search, additional articles were individually evaluated and selected.

RESULTS

Pituitary adenoma growth is primarily driven by unrestrained cell cycle progression, deregulation of growth and proliferation pathways, and abnormal epigenetic regulation of gene expression. These pathways may be amenable to therapeutic intervention. A significant number of studies have attempted to establish links between gene mutations and tumor progression, but a thorough mechanistic understanding remains elusive.

CONCLUSIONS

Although not currently a prominent aspect in the clinical management of pituitary adenomas, genomics and epigenomic studies may become essential in refining patient care and developing novel pharmacological agents. Future basic science investigations should aim at elucidating mechanistic understandings unique to each pituitary adenoma subtype, which will facilitate rational drug design.

The roles and regulation of the KLF5 transcription factor in cancers

Krüppel‐like factor 5 (KLF5) is a member of the KLF family. Recent studies have suggested that KLF5 regulates the expression of a large number of new target genes and participates in diverse cellular functions, such as stemness, proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and migration. In response to multiple signaling pathways, various transcriptional modulation and posttranslational modifications affect the expression level and activity of KLF5. Several transgenic mouse models have revealed the physiological and pathological functions of KLF5 in different cancers. Studies of KLF5 will provide prognostic biomarkers, therapeutic targets, and potential drugs for cancers.

Novel Insights into Pituitary Tumorigenesis: Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms

Substantial advances have been made recently in the pathobiology of pituitary tumors. Similar to many other endocrine tumors, over the last few years we have recognized the role of germline and somatic mutations in a number of syndromic or nonsyndromic conditions with pituitary tumor predisposition. These include the identification of novel germline variants in patients with familial or simplex pituitary tumors and establishment of novel somatic variants identified through next generation sequencing. Advanced techniques have allowed the exploration of epigenetic mechanisms mediated through DNA methylation, histone modifications and noncoding RNAs, such as microRNA, long noncoding RNAs and circular RNAs. These mechanisms can influence tumor formation, growth, and invasion. While genetic and epigenetic mechanisms often disrupt similar pathways, such as cell cycle regulation, in pituitary tumors there is little overlap between genes altered by germline, somatic, and epigenetic mechanisms. The interplay between these complex mechanisms driving tumorigenesis are best studied in the emerging multiomics studies. Here, we summarize insights from the recent developments in the regulation of pituitary tumorigenesis.

A Hierarchy of Proliferative and Migratory Keratinocytes Maintains the Tympanic Membrane

The tympanic membrane (TM) is critical for hearing and requires continuous clearing of cellular debris, but little is known about homeostatic mechanisms in the TM epidermis. Using single-cell RNA sequencing, lineage tracing, whole-organ explant, and live-cell imaging, we show that homeostatic TM epidermis is distinct from other epidermal sites and has discrete proliferative zones with a three-dimensional hierarchy of multiple keratinocyte populations. TM stem cells reside in a discrete location of the superior TM and generate long-lived clones and committed progenitors (CPs). CP clones exhibit lateral migration, and their proliferative capacity is supported by Pdgfra+ fibroblasts, generating migratory but non-proliferative progeny. Single-cell sequencing of the human TM revealed similar cell types and transcriptional programming. Thus, during homeostasis, TM keratinocytes transit through a proliferative CP state and exhibit directional lateral migration. This work forms a foundation for understanding TM disorders and modeling keratinocyte biology.

Unidirectional Regulation of Vimentin Intermediate Filaments to Caveolin-1

Both the mechanosensitive vimentin cytoskeleton and endocytic caveolae contribute to various active processes such as cell migration, morphogenesis, and stress response. However, the crosstalk between these two systems has remained elusive. Here, we find that the subcellular expression between vimentin and caveolin-1 is mutual exclusive, and vimentin filaments physically arrest the cytoplasmic motility of caveolin-1 vesicles. Importantly, vimentin depletion increases the phosphorylation of caveolin-1 on site Tyr14, and restores the compromised cell migration rate and directionality caused by caveolin-1 deprivation. Moreover, upon hypo-osmotic shock, vimentin-knockout recovers the reduced intracellular motility of caveolin-1 vesicles. In contrary, caveolin-1 depletion shows no effect on the expression, phosphorylation (on sites Ser39, Ser56, and Ser83), distribution, solubility, and cellular dynamics of vimentin filaments. Taken together, our data reveals a unidirectional regulation of vimentin to caveolin-1, at least on the cellular level.

Construction of a potential microRNA, transcription factor and mRNA regulatory network in hepatocellular carcinoma

Background

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignancies worldwide and the third leading cause of cancer-related death. MicroRNAs and transcription factors (TFs) cooperate to regulate the same target gene, thus affecting the progression of HCC.

Methods

Differentially expressed miRNAs and mRNAs were screened. Functional enrichment analysis of these HCC-related mRNAs was performed, and a protein-protein interaction network was constructed. TFs that regulate these miRNAs and hub genes were also screened.

Results

Ten differentially upregulated miRNAs and 5 differentially downregulated miRNAs were screened. Additionally, 183 downregulated mRNAs and 303 upregulated mRNAs that are potentially bound to these differentially expressed miRNAs were identified. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) results showed that the differentially expressed mRNAs were significantly enriched in pathways in cancer, the Wnt signaling pathway, and the Rap1 signaling pathway. Then, 220 TFs were identified for 5 candidate genes of the downregulated mRNAs, and 258 TFs were identified for 9 candidate genes of the upregulated mRNAs. Finally, the 9 upregulated hub genes were related to higher overall survival (OS) in the low-expression group, and 4/5 downregulated hub genes were related to higher OS in the high-expression group.

Conclusions

This study constructed a potential regulatory network between candidate molecules and that need to be further verified. These regulatory relationships are expected to clarify the new molecular mechanisms of the occurrence and development of HCC.

Identification of key genes in invasive clinically non-functioning pituitary adenoma by integrating analysis of DNA methylation and mRNA expression profiles

BACKGROUND

Tumor surrounding the internal carotid artery or invading to the cavernous sinus is an important characteristic of invasive pituitary adenoma, and a pivotal factor of tumor residue and regrowth. Without specific changes in serum hormone related to the adenohypophyseal cell of origin, clinically non-functioning pituitary adenoma is more likely to be diagnosed at invasive stages compared with functioning pituitary adenoma. The underlying mechanism of tumor invasion remains unknown. In this study, we aimed to identify key genes in tumor invasion by integrating analyses of DNA methylation and gene expression profiles.

METHOD

Genome-wide DNA methylation and mRNA microarray analysis were performed for tumor samples from 68 patients at the Beijing Tiantan Hospital. Differentially expressed genes and methylated probes were identified based on an invasive vs non-invasive grouping. Differentially methylated probes in the promoter region of targeted genes were assessed. Pearson correlation analysis was used to identify genes with a strong association between DNA methylation status and expression levels. Pyrosequencing and RT-PCR were used to validate the methylation status and expression levels of candidate genes, respectively.

RESULTS

A total of 8842 differentially methylated probes, located on 4582 genes, and 661 differentially expressed genes were identified. Both promoter methylation and expression alterations were observed for 115 genes with 58 genes showing a negative correlation between DNA methylation status and expression level. Nineteen genes that exhibited notably negative correlations between DNA methylation and gene expression levels, are involved in various gene ontologies and pathways, or played an important role in different diseases, were regarded as candidate genes. We found an increased methylation with a decreased expression of PHYHD1, LTBR, C22orf42, PRR5, ANKDD1A, RAB13, CAMKV, KIFC3, WNT4 and STAT6, and a decreased methylation with an increased expression of MYBPHL. The methylation status and expression levels of these genes were validated by pyrosequencing and RT-PCR.

CONCLUSIONS

The DNA methylation and expression levels of PHYHD1, LTBR, MYBPHL, C22orf42, PRR5, ANKDD1A, RAB13, CAMKV, KIFC3, WNT4 and STAT6 are associated with tumor invasion, and these genes may become the potential genes for targeted therapy.

Transcription Factor and miRNA Interplays Can Manifest the Survival of ccRCC Patients

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) still remains a higher mortality rate in worldwide. Obtaining promising biomakers is very crucial for improving the diagnosis and prognosis of ccRCC patients. Herein, we firstly identified eight potentially prognostic miRNAs (hsa-miR-144-5p, hsa-miR-223-3p, hsa-miR-365b-3p, hsa-miR-3613-5p, hsa-miR-9-5p, hsa-miR-183-5p, hsa-miR-335-3p, hsa-miR-1269a). Secondly, we found that a signature containing these eight miRNAs showed obviously superior to a single miRNA in the prognostic effect and credibility for predicting the survival of ccRCC patients. Thirdly, we discovered that twenty-two transcription factors (TFs) interact with these eight miRNAs, and a signature combining nine TFs (TFAP2A, KLF5, IRF1, RUNX1, RARA, GATA3, IKZF1, POU2F2, and FOXM1) could promote the prognosis of ccRCC patients. Finally, we further identified eleven genes (hsa-miR-365b-3p, hsa-miR-223-3p, hsa-miR-1269a, hsa-miR-144-5p, hsa-miR-183-5p, hsa-miR-335-3p, TFAP2A, KLF5, IRF1, MYC, IKZF1) that could combine as a signature to improve the prognosis effect of ccRCC patients, which distinctly outperformed the eight-miRNA signature and the nine-TF signature. Overall, we identified several new prognosis factors for ccRCC, and revealed a potential mechanism that TFs and miRNAs interplay cooperatively or oppositely regulate a certain number of tumor suppressors, driver genes, and oncogenes to facilitate the survival of ccRCC patients.

COL6A6 interacted with P4HA3 to suppress the growth and metastasis of pituitary adenoma via blocking PI3K-Akt pathway

The role and mechanism of collagen type VI alpha 6 (COL6A6) on tumor growth and metastasis in pituitary adenoma (PA) was determined. COL6A6 was downregulated in PA tissues and cell lines, which was negatively associated with the expression of prolyl-4-hydroxylase alpha polypeptide III (P4HA3) in the progression of PA. Overexpression of COL6A6 significantly suppressed tumor growth and metastasis capacity in PA. In addition, P4HA3 worked as the upstream of the PI3K-Akt pathway to alleviate the antitumor activity of COL6A6 on the growth and metastasis of both AtT-20 and HP75 cells. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of COL6A6 on cell proliferation, migration and invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) was reversed by P4HA3 overexpression or activation of the PI3K-Akt pathway induced by IGF-1 addition, which provided a new biomarker for clinical PA treatment.

EGR1 promotes the cartilage degeneration and hypertrophy by activating the Krüppel-like factor 5 and β-catenin signaling

Osteoarthritis is one of the most common orthopedic diseases in elderly people who have lost their mobility. In this study，we observed abnormally high EGR1 expression in the articular cartilage of patients with osteoarthritis. We also found significantly high EGR1 expression in the articular cartilage of mice with destabilized medial meniscus (DMM)-induced osteoarthritis and 20-month-old mice. In vitro experiments indicated that IL-1β could significantly enhance EGR1 expression in primary mouse chondrocytes. EGR1 over-expression in chondrocytes using adenovirus could inhibit COl2A1 expression and enhance MMP9 and MMP13 expression. And silencing EGR1, using RNAi, had the opposite effects. Moreover, EGR1 over-expression accelerated chondrocyte hypertrophy in vitro, and EGR1 knockdown reversed this effect. We then explored the underlying mechanism. EGR1 over-expression increased Kruppel-Like Factor 5 (KLF5) protein level without influencing its synthesis. Enhanced EGR1 expression induced its integration with KLF5, leading to suppressed ubiquitination of KLF5. Moreover, EGR1 prompted β-catenin nuclear transportation to control chondrocyte hypertrophy. Ectopic expression of EGR1 in articular cartilage aggravated the degradation of the cartilage matrix in vivo. The EGR1 inhibitor, ML264, protected chondrocytes from IL-1β-mediated cartilage matrix degradation in vitro and DMM-induced osteoarthritis in vivo. Above all, we demonstrate the effect and mechanisms of EGR1 on osteoarthritis and provide evidence that the ML264 might be a potential drug for treating osteoarthritis in the future.

Molecular Network Basis of Invasive Pituitary Adenoma: A Review

Cases with pituitary adenoma comprise 10-25% of intracranial neoplasm, being the third most common intracranial tumor, most of the adenomas are considered to be benign. About 35% of pituitary adenomas are invasive. This review summarized the known molecular basis of the invasiveness of pituitary adenomas. The study pointed out that hypoxia-inducible factor-1α, pituitary tumor transforming gene, vascular endothelial growth factor, fibroblast growth factor-2, and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs, mainly MMP-2, and MMP-9) are core molecules responsible for the invasiveness of pituitary adenomas. The reason is that these molecules have the ability to directly or indirectly induce cell proliferation, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, degradation, and remodeling of extracellular matrix. HIF-1α induced by hypoxia or apoplexy inside the adenoma might be the initiating factor of invasive transformation, followed with angiogenesis for overexpressed VEGF, EMT for overexpressed PTTG, degradation of ECM for overexpressed MMPs, creating a suitable microenvironment within the tumor. Together, they form a complex interactive network. More investigations are required to further elucidate the mechanisms underlying the invasiveness of pituitary adenomas.

Caveolin-1-Knockout Mouse as a Model of Inflammatory Diseases

Caveolin-1 (CAV1) is the scaffold protein of caveolae, which are minute invaginations of the cell membrane that are involved in endocytosis, cell signaling, and endothelial-mediated inflammation. CAV1 has also been reported to have a dual role as either a tumor suppressor or tumor promoter, depending on the type of cancer. Inflammation is an important player in tumor progression, but the role of caveolin-1 in generating an inflammatory milieu remains poorly characterized. We used a caveolin-1-knockout (CAV1^-/-) mouse model to assess the inflammatory status via the quantification of the pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokine levels, as well as the ability of circulating lymphocytes to respond to nonspecific stimuli by producing cytokines. Here, we report that the CAV1^-/- mice were characterized by a low-grade systemic proinflammatory status, with a moderate increase in the IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-12p70 levels. CAV1^-/- circulating lymphocytes were more prone to cytokine production upon nonspecific stimulation than the wild-type lymphocytes. These results show that CAV1 involvement in cell homeostasis is more complex than previously revealed, as it plays a role in the inflammatory process. These findings indicate that the CAV1^-/- mouse model could prove to be a useful tool for inflammation-related studies.