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Uribe-Querol E, Rosales C. Neutrophils versus Protozoan Parasites: Plasmodium, Trichomonas, Leishmania, Trypanosoma, and Entameoba. Microorganisms 2024; 12:827. [PMID: 38674770 PMCID: PMC11051968 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12040827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Neutrophils are the most abundant polymorphonuclear granular leukocytes in human blood and are an essential part of the innate immune system. Neutrophils are efficient cells that eliminate pathogenic bacteria and fungi, but their role in dealing with protozoan parasitic infections remains controversial. At sites of protozoan parasite infections, a large number of infiltrating neutrophils is observed, suggesting that neutrophils are important cells for controlling the infection. Yet, in most cases, there is also a strong inflammatory response that can provoke tissue damage. Diseases like malaria, trichomoniasis, leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and amoebiasis affect millions of people globally. In this review, we summarize these protozoan diseases and describe the novel view on how neutrophils are involved in protection from these parasites. Also, we present recent evidence that neutrophils play a double role in these infections participating both in control of the parasite and in the pathogenesis of the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Uribe-Querol
- Laboratorio de Biología del Desarrollo, División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City 04510, Mexico
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2
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Díaz-Godínez C, Ríos-Valencia DG, García-Aguirre S, Martínez-Calvillo S, Carrero JC. Immunomodulatory effect of extracellular vesicles from Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites: Regulation of NETs and respiratory burst during confrontation with human neutrophils. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1018314. [PMID: 36389143 PMCID: PMC9650183 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1018314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Parasites release extracellular vesicles (EVs) which, in some cases, modulate the host's immune response contributing to the establishment of the infection. In this work we have isolated and characterized the EVs released by trophozoites of the human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, the causal agent of amoebiasis, when alone or in coculture with human neutrophils, and determined their effect on neutrophil NETs and ROS production. Nanoparticle tracking analysis showed that amoebic EVs are variable in size, ranging from less than 50 nm to nearly 600 nm in diameter (average of 167 nm), whereas neutrophil EVs are more uniform in size, with an average of 136 nm. In cocultures amoeba:neutrophil (1:100) most EVs are 98 nm in size, which is the typical size of exosomes. EVs from amoebae and neutrophils showed almost equal levels of ROS, which were considerably increased in EVs from cocultures. Uptake of amoebic EVs by neutrophils was demonstrated by fluorescence and resulted in a significant reduction in the oxidative burst and NET release triggered by PMA, ionophore A23187, or the amoebae itself used as stimuli. Interestingly, uptake of EVs from cocultures did not affect ROS production, but instead caused a greater delay in the onset of NETs release and in their quantity. A comparative proteomic analysis between the EVs of amoebae and neutrophils separately vs the cocultures showed a similar distribution of protein categories in the GO analysis, but differences in the expression and abundance of proteins such as the N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc) inhibitable surface lectin and calreticulin in amoeba EVs, and various antimicrobial molecules in neutrophil EVs, such as lactoferrin and myeloperoxidase. These results highlight the importance of EVs in the immunomodulatory effects exerted by amoeba on human neutrophils.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Diana G. Ríos-Valencia
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Samuel García-Aguirre
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Santiago Martínez-Calvillo
- Unidad de Biomedicina, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Tlalnepantla, EM, Mexico
| | - Julio César Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Ciudad de México, Mexico
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Hoenow S, Yan K, Noll J, Groneberg M, Casar C, Lory NC, Vogelsang M, Hansen C, Wolf V, Fehling H, Sellau J, Mittrücker HW, Lotter H. The Properties of Proinflammatory Ly6Chi Monocytes Are Differentially Shaped by Parasitic and Bacterial Liver Infections. Cells 2022; 11:cells11162539. [PMID: 36010615 PMCID: PMC9406626 DOI: 10.3390/cells11162539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 08/11/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past, proinflammatory CD11b+Ly6Chi monocytes were predominantly considered as a uniform population. However, recent investigations suggests that this population is far more diverse than previously thought. For example, in mouse models of Entamoeba (E.) histolytica and Listeria (L.) monocytogenes liver infections, it was shown that their absence had opposite effects. In the former model, it ameliorated parasite-dependent liver injury, whereas in the listeria model it exacerbated liver pathology. Here, we analyzed Ly6Chi monocytes from the liver of both infection models at transcriptome, protein, and functional levels. Paralleled by E. histolytica- and L. monocytogenes-specific differences in recruitment-relevant chemokines, both infections induced accumulation of Ly6C+ monocytes at infection sites. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a high similarity between monocytes from naïve and parasite-infected mice and a clear proinflammatory phenotype of listeria-induced monocytes. This was further reflected by the upregulation of M2-related transcription factors (e.g., Mafb, Nr4a1, Fos) and higher CD14 expression by Ly6Chi monocytes in the E. histolytica infection model. In contrast, monocytes from the listeria infection model expressed M1-related transcription factors (e.g., Irf2, Mndal, Ifi204) and showed higher expression of CD38, CD74, and CD86, as well as higher ROS production. Taken together, proinflammatory Ly6Chi monocytes vary considerably depending on the causative pathogen. By using markers identified in the study, Ly6Chi monocytes can be further subdivided into different populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Hoenow
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Karsten Yan
- Institute for Immunology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jill Noll
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Marie Groneberg
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Christian Casar
- Bioinformatic Facility, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Niels Christian Lory
- Institute for Immunology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Malte Vogelsang
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Charlotte Hansen
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Vincent Wolf
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Helena Fehling
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Julie Sellau
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hans-Willi Mittrücker
- Institute for Immunology, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, 20246 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Hannelore Lotter
- Department of Molecular Parasitology and Immunology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
- Correspondence:
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Uribe-Querol E, Rosales C. Immune Response to the Enteric Parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Physiology (Bethesda) 2021; 35:244-260. [PMID: 32490746 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00038.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite responsible for amoebiasis, a disease with a high prevalence in developing countries. Establishing an amoebic infection involves interplay between pathogenic factors for invasion and tissue damage, and immune responses for protecting the host. Here, we review the pathogenicity of E. histolytica and summarize the latest knowledge on immune response and immune evasion mechanisms during amoebiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Uribe-Querol
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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New Insights on NETosis Induced by Entamoeba histolytica: Dependence on ROS from Amoebas and Extracellular MPO Activity. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10060974. [PMID: 34206992 PMCID: PMC8233886 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10060974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
NETosis is a neutrophil process involving sequential steps from pathogen detection to the release of DNA harboring antimicrobial proteins, including the central generation of NADPH oxidase dependent or independent ROS. Previously, we reported that NETosis triggered by Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites is independent of NADPH oxidase activity in neutrophils, but dependent on the viability of the parasites and no ROS source was identified. Here, we explored the possibility that E. histolytica trophozoites serve as the ROS source for NETosis. NET quantitation was performed using SYTOX® Green assay in the presence of selective inhibitors and scavengers. We observed that respiratory burst in neutrophils was inhibited by trophozoites in a dose dependent manner. Mitochondrial ROS was not also necessary, as the mitochondrial scavenger mitoTEMPO did not affect the process. Surprisingly, ROS-deficient amoebas obtained by pre-treatment with pyrocatechol were less likely to induce NETs. Additionally, we detected the presence of MPO on the cell surface of trophozoites after the interaction with neutrophils and found that luminol and isoluminol, intracellular and extracellular scavengers for MPO derived ROS reduced the amount of NET triggered by amoebas. These data suggest that ROS generated by trophozoites and processed by the extracellular MPO during the contact with neutrophils are required for E. histolytica induced NETosis.
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Rosales C. Neutrophils vs. amoebas: Immunity against the protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica. J Leukoc Biol 2021; 110:1241-1252. [PMID: 34085314 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.4mr0521-849rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 05/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Entamoeba histolytica is a protozoan parasite with high prevalence in developing countries, and causes amoebiasis. This disease affects the intestine and the liver, and is the third leading cause of human deaths among parasite infections. E. histolytica infection of the intestine or liver is associated with a strong inflammation characterized by a large number of infiltrating neutrophils. Consequently, several reports suggest that neutrophils play a protective role in amoebiasis. However, other reports indicate that amoebas making direct contact with neutrophils provoke lysis of these leukocytes, resulting in the release of their lytic enzymes, which in turn provoke tissue damage. Therefore, the role of neutrophils in this parasitic infection remains controversial. Neutrophils migrate from the circulation to sites of infection, where they display several antimicrobial functions, including phagocytosis, degranulation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NET). Recently, it was found that E. histolytica trophozoites are capable of inducing NET formation. Neutrophils in touch with amoebas launched NET in an explosive manner around the amoebas and completely covered them in nebulous DNA and cell aggregates where parasites got immobilized and killed. In addition, the phenotype of neutrophils can be modified by the microbiome resulting in protection against amoebas. This review describes the mechanisms of E. histolytica infection and discusses the novel view of how neutrophils are involved in innate immunity defense against amoebiasis. Also, the mechanisms on how the microbiome modulates neutrophil function are described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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7
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Kumarasamy G, Abdus Sani AA, Olivos-García A, Noordin R, Othman N. Antigenic membrane proteins of virulent variant of Entamoeba histolytica HM-1:IMSS. Pathog Glob Health 2020; 114:333-342. [PMID: 32536281 DOI: 10.1080/20477724.2020.1780402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebiasis, caused by Entamoeba histolytica, is one of the leading parasitic infections in the world. This study was aimed at profiling antigenic membrane proteins of a virulent variant of E. histolytica HM-1:IMSS. The membrane proteins were extracted using ProteoExtract® kit (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) or conventional method, separated using OFFGEL 3100 fractionator (Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, California), followed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis. Selected antigenic membrane proteins were identified using LC-ESI-MS/MS. Subsequently, the proteins were classified according to their biological processes and predictions were made on membrane and membrane-associated proteins. When the proteins were probed with pooled sera from amoebic liver abscess (ALA) patients, 10 and 15 antigenic proteins with molecular weights 25 to 200 kDa were identified using the ProteoExtract® kit and conventional method, respectively. LC-ESI-MS/MS identified 13 antigenic proteins, and both extraction methods predicted six of them as membrane and membrane-associated proteins. The topmost biological processes which comprised of six proteins were involved in cellular processes.. These antigenic membrane proteins merit further investigations as potential candidates for vaccine studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaayathri Kumarasamy
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia , Penang, Malaysia
| | - Asmahani Azira Abdus Sani
- Institut Genom Malaysia, Malaysia Genome Institute, National Institutes of Biotechnology Malaysia (NIBM) , Kajang, Malaysia
| | - Alfonso Olivos-García
- Departamento de Medicina Experimental Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México , México, Mexico
| | - Rahmah Noordin
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia , Penang, Malaysia
| | - Nurulhasanah Othman
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia , Penang, Malaysia
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Fonseca Z, Uribe-Querol E, Díaz-Godínez C, Carrero JC, Rosales C. Pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica, but not Entamoeba dispar, induce neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation. J Leukoc Biol 2019; 105:1167-1181. [PMID: 30913315 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.ma0818-309rrr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebiasis is an infection of global importance, caused by the eukaryotic parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Pathogenic E. histolytica is associated worldwide with over a million cases of amoebic dysentery, colitis, and amoebic liver abscess. In contrast, the nonpathogenic Entamoeba dispar does not cause these diseases, although it is commonly found in the same areas as pathogenic amoeba. Entamoeba histolytica infection is usually associated with infiltrating neutrophils. These neutrophils appear to play a defensive role against this parasite, by mechanisms not completely understood. Recently, our group reported that neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) are produced in response to E. histolytica trophozoites. But, there is no information on whether nonpathogenic E. dispar can also induce NET formation. In this report, we explored the possibility that E. dispar leads to NET formation. Neutrophils were stimulated by E. histolytica trophozoites or by E. dispar trophozoites, and NET formation was assessed by video microscopy. NET induced by E. histolytica were important for trapping and killing amoebas. In contrast, E. dispar did not induce NET formation in any condition. Also E. dispar did not induce neutrophil degranulation or reactive oxygen species production. In addition, E. histolytica-induced NET formation required alive amoebas and it was inhibited by galactose, N-acetylgalactosamine, and lactose. These data show that only alive pathogenic E. histolytica activates neutrophils to produce NET, and suggest that recognition of the parasite involves a carbohydrate with an axial HO- group at carbon 4 of a hexose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zayda Fonseca
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Eileen Uribe-Querol
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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Fonseca Z, Díaz-Godínez C, Mora N, Alemán OR, Uribe-Querol E, Carrero JC, Rosales C. Entamoeba histolytica Induce Signaling via Raf/MEK/ERK for Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) Formation. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:226. [PMID: 30023352 PMCID: PMC6039748 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoebiasis, the disease caused by Entamoeba histolytica is the third leading cause of human deaths among parasite infections. E. histolytica was reported associated with around 100 million cases of amoebic dysentery, colitis and amoebic liver abscess that lead to almost 50,000 fatalities worldwide in 2010. E. histolytica infection is associated with the induction of inflammation characterized by a large number of infiltrating neutrophils. These neutrophils have been implicated in defense against this parasite, by mechanisms not completely described. The neutrophil antimicrobial mechanisms include phagocytosis, degranulation, and formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Recently, our group reported that NETs are also produced in response to E. histolytica trophozoites. But, the mechanism for NETs induction remains unknown. In this report we explored the possibility that E. histolytica leads to NETs formation via a signaling pathway similar to the pathways activated by PMA or the Fc receptor FcγRIIIb. Neutrophils were stimulated by E. histolytica trophozoites and the effect of various pharmacological inhibitors on amoeba-induced NETs formation was assessed. Selective inhibitors of Raf, MEK, and NF-κB prevented E. histolytica-induced NET formation. In contrast, inhibitors of PKC, TAK1, and NADPH-oxidase did not block E. histolytica-induced NETs formation. E. histolytica induced phosphorylation of ERK in a Raf and MEK dependent manner. These data show that E. histolytica activates a signaling pathway to induce NETs formation, that involves Raf/MEK/ERK, but it is independent of PKC, TAK1, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Thus, amoebas activate neutrophils via a different pathway from the pathways activated by PMA or the IgG receptor FcγRIIIb.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zayda Fonseca
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Nancy Mora
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Omar R Alemán
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Eileen Uribe-Querol
- División de Estudios de Posgrado e Investigación, Facultad de Odontología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Departamento de Inmunología, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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Díaz-Godínez C, Fonseca Z, Néquiz M, Laclette JP, Rosales C, Carrero JC. Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites Induce a Rapid Non-classical NETosis Mechanism Independent of NOX2-Derived Reactive Oxygen Species and PAD4 Activity. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:184. [PMID: 29922599 PMCID: PMC5996068 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) are DNA fibers decorated with histones and antimicrobial proteins from cytoplasmic granules released into the extracellular space in a process denominated NETosis. The molecular pathways involved in NETosis have not been completely understood. Classical NETosis mechanisms involve the neutrophil elastase (NE) translocation to nucleus due to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by NADPH oxidase (NOX2) or the peptidyl arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) activation in response to an increase in extracellular calcium influx; both mechanisms result in DNA decondensation. Previously, we reported that trophozoites and lipopeptidophosphoglycan from Entamoeba histolytica trigger NET release in human neutrophils. Here, we demonstrated in a quantitative manner that NETs were rapidly form upon treatment with amoebic trophozoites and involved both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). NETs formation depended on amoeba viability as heat-inactivated or paraformaldehyde-fixed amoebas were not able to induce NETs. Interestingly, ROS were not detected in neutrophils during their interaction with amoebas, which could explain why NOX2 inhibition using apocynin did not affect this NETosis. Surprisingly, whereas calcium chelation reduced NET release induced by amoebas, PAD4 inhibition by GSK484 failed to block DNA extrusion but, as expected, abolished NETosis induced by the calcium ionophore A23187. Additionally, NE translocation to the nucleus and serine-protease activity were necessary for NET release caused by amoeba. These data support the idea that E. histolytica trophozoites trigger NETosis by a rapid non-classical mechanism and that different mechanisms of NETs release exist depending on the stimuli used.
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Affiliation(s)
- César Díaz-Godínez
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Zayda Fonseca
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Mario Néquiz
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Hospital General de México, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Juan P Laclette
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Carlos Rosales
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Julio C Carrero
- Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
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11
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Ávila EE, Salaiza N, Pulido J, Rodríguez MC, Díaz-Godínez C, Laclette JP, Becker I, Carrero JC. Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites and Lipopeptidophosphoglycan Trigger Human Neutrophil Extracellular Traps. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158979. [PMID: 27415627 PMCID: PMC4944907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neutrophil defense mechanisms include phagocytosis, degranulation and the formation of extracellular traps (NET). These networks of DNA are triggered by several immune and microbial factors, representing a defense strategy to prevent microbial spread by trapping/killing pathogens. This may be important against Entamoeba histolytica, since its large size hinders its phagocytosis. The aim of this study was to determine whether E. histolytica and their lipopeptidophosphoglycan (EhLPPG) induce the formation of NETs and the outcome of their interaction with the parasite. Our data show that live amoebae and EhLPPG, but not fixed trophozoites, induced NET formation in a time and dose dependent manner, starting at 5 min of co-incubation. Although immunofluorescence studies showed that the NETs contain cathelicidin LL-37 in close proximity to amoebae, the trophozoite growth was only affected when ethylene glycol tetra-acetic acid (EGTA) was present during contact with NETs, suggesting that the activity of enzymes requiring calcium, such as DNases, may be important for amoeba survival. In conclusion, E. histolytica trophozoites and EhLPPG induce in vitro formation of human NETs, which did not affect the parasite growth unless a chelating agent was present. These results suggest that NETs may be an important factor of the innate immune response during infection with E. histolytica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva E. Ávila
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Guanajuato, 36050, Guanajuato, México
| | - Norma Salaiza
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Julieta Pulido
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Guanajuato, 36050, Guanajuato, México
| | - Mayra C. Rodríguez
- Department of Biology, Division of Exact and Natural Sciences, Universidad de Guanajuato, 36050, Guanajuato, México
| | - César Díaz-Godínez
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Juan P. Laclette
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
| | - Ingeborg Becker
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Medical Faculty, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
- * E-mail: (JCC); (IB)
| | - Julio C. Carrero
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510, México D.F., México
- * E-mail: (JCC); (IB)
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12
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Campos-Rodríguez R, Gutiérrez-Meza M, Jarillo-Luna RA, Drago-Serrano ME, Abarca-Rojano E, Ventura-Juárez J, Cárdenas-Jaramillo LM, Pacheco-Yepez J. A review of the proposed role of neutrophils in rodent amebic liver abscess models. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 23:6. [PMID: 26880421 PMCID: PMC4754534 DOI: 10.1051/parasite/2016006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Host invasion by Entamoeba histolytica, the pathogenic agent of amebiasis, can lead to the development of amebic liver abscess (ALA). Due to the difficulty of exploring host and amebic factors involved in the pathogenesis of ALA in humans, most studies have been conducted with animal models (e.g., mice, gerbils, and hamsters). Histopathological findings reveal that the chronic phase of ALA in humans corresponds to lytic or liquefactive necrosis, whereas in rodent models there is granulomatous inflammation. However, the use of animal models has provided important information on molecules and mechanisms of the host/parasite interaction. Hence, the present review discusses the possible role of neutrophils in the effector immune response in ALA in rodents. Properly activated neutrophils are probably successful in eliminating amebas through oxidative and non-oxidative mechanisms, including neutrophil degranulation, the generation of free radicals (O2−, H2O2, HOCl) and peroxynitrite, the activation of NADPH-oxidase and myeloperoxidase (MPO) enzymes, and the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). On the other hand, if amebas are not eliminated in the early stages of infection, they trigger a prolonged and exaggerated inflammatory response that apparently causes ALAs. Genetic differences in animals and humans are likely to be key to a successful host immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Campos-Rodríguez
- Sección de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Manuel Gutiérrez-Meza
- Sección de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México - Coordinación de Ciencias Morfológicas, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Rosa Adriana Jarillo-Luna
- Sección de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México - Coordinación de Ciencias Morfológicas, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México
| | - María Elisa Drago-Serrano
- Departamento de Sistemas Biológicos, Unidad Xochimilco, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Edgar Abarca-Rojano
- Sección de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Javier Ventura-Juárez
- Departamento de Morfología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, México
| | - Luz María Cárdenas-Jaramillo
- Coordinación de Ciencias Morfológicas, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México
| | - Judith Pacheco-Yepez
- Sección de Posgrado e Investigación, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Distrito Federal, México
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The oxygen reduction pathway and heat shock stress response are both required for Entamoeba histolytica pathogenicity. Curr Genet 2015; 62:295-300. [PMID: 26589893 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-015-0543-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2015] [Accepted: 11/11/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Several species belonging to the genus Entamoeba can colonize the mouth or the human gut; however, only Entamoeba histolytica is pathogenic to the host, causing the disease amoebiasis. This illness is responsible for one hundred thousand human deaths per year worldwide, affecting mainly underdeveloped countries. Throughout its entire life cycle and invasion of human tissues, the parasite is constantly subjected to stress conditions. Under in vitro culture, this microaerophilic parasite can tolerate up to 5 % oxygen concentrations; however, during tissue invasion the parasite has to cope with the higher oxygen content found in well-perfused tissues (4-14 %) and with reactive oxygen and nitrogen species derived from both host and parasite. In this work, the role of the amoebic oxygen reduction pathway (ORP) and heat shock response (HSP) are analyzed in relation to E. histolytica pathogenicity. The data suggest that in contrast with non-pathogenic E. dispar, the higher level of ORP and HSPs displayed by E. histolytica enables its survival in tissues by diminishing and detoxifying intracellular oxidants and repairing damaged proteins to allow metabolic fluxes, replication and immune evasion.
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14
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Peroxynitrite and peroxiredoxin in the pathogenesis of experimental amebic liver abscess. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:324230. [PMID: 24822193 PMCID: PMC4009108 DOI: 10.1155/2014/324230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms by which Entamoeba histolytica causes amebic liver abscess (ALA) are still not fully understood. Amebic mechanisms of adherence and cytotoxic activity are pivotal for amebic survival but apparently do not directly cause liver abscess. Abundant evidence indicates that chronic inflammation (resulting from an inadequate immune response) is probably the main cause of ALA. Reports referring to inflammatory mechanisms of liver damage mention a repertoire of toxic molecules by the immune response (especially nitric oxide and reactive oxygen intermediates) and cytotoxic substances released by neutrophils and macrophages after being lysed by amoebas (e.g., defensins, complement, and proteases). Nevertheless, recent evidence downplays these mechanisms in abscess formation and emphasizes the importance of peroxynitrite (ONOO−). It seems that the defense mechanism of amoebas against ONOO−, namely, the amebic thioredoxin system (including peroxiredoxin), is superior to that of mammals. The aim of the present text is to define the importance of ONOO− as the main agent of liver abscess formation during amebic invasion, and to explain the superior capacity of amoebas to defend themselves against this toxic agent through the peroxiredoxin and thioredoxin system.
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15
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Meneses-Ruiz DM, Laclette JP, Aguilar-Díaz H, Hernández-Ruiz J, Luz-Madrigal A, Sampieri A, Vaca L, Carrero JC. Mucosal delivery of ACNPV baculovirus driving expression of the Gal-lectin LC3 fragment confers protection against amoebic liver abscess in hamster. Int J Biol Sci 2011; 7:1345-56. [PMID: 22110386 PMCID: PMC3221370 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.7.1345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucosal vaccination against amoebiasis using the Gal-lectin of E. histolytica has been proposed as one of the leading strategies for controlling this human disease. However, most mucosal adjuvants used are toxic and the identification of safe delivery systems is necessary. Here, we evaluate the potential of a recombinant Autographa californica baculovirus driving the expression of the LC3 fragment of the Gal-lectin to confer protection against amoebic liver abscess (ALA) in hamsters following oral or nasal immunization. Hamsters immunized by oral route showed complete absence (57.9%) or partial development (21%) of ALA, resulting in some protection in 78.9% of animals when compared with the wild type baculovirus and sham control groups. In contrast, nasal immunization conferred only 21% of protection efficacy. Levels of ALA protection showed lineal correlation with the development of an anti-amoebic cellular immune response evaluated in spleens, but not with the induction of seric IgG anti-amoeba antibodies. These results suggest that baculovirus driving the expression of E. histolytica vaccine candidate antigens is useful for inducing protective cellular and humoral immune responses following oral immunization, and therefore it could be used as a system for mucosal delivery of an anti-amoebic vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Meneses-Ruiz
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. A.P. 70228, México D.F., México
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Cervantes-Rebolledo C, Moreno-Mendoza N, Morales-Montor J, De La Torre P, Laclette JP, Carrero JC. Gonadectomy inhibits development of experimental amoebic liver abscess in hamsters through downregulation of the inflammatory immune response. Parasite Immunol 2009; 31:447-56. [PMID: 19646209 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3024.2009.01120.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Incidence of amoebic liver abscess (ALA) in human males is considerably higher than in females, suggesting a role for sex hormones in this parasite infection. We describe here the effect of hamster gonadectomization on the development of ALA. After monitoring the decrease of oestradiol in females and testosterone in males to undetectable levels by ELISA and Radio Immuno Assay (RIA) in serum, hamsters were intraportally infected with Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites and killed 7 days later. ALA was absent in 50% of male and 15% of female gonadectomized (Gdx) hamsters, in comparison with 100% infection in non-Gdx controls. This protection against ALA in Gdx hamsters was concomitant to a comparatively scarce inflammatory infiltrate and necrosis surrounding clusters of trophozoites in the liver tissue, as well as to a lack of response of spleen cells to Con A, evaluated in proliferation assays. As tissue damage in ALA has been associated with a local inflammatory Th1 response, we determined the profile of response in hamsters by immunohistochemistry on liver sections. In contrast to strong Th1 responses in non-Gdx animals, Gdx females and males exhibited Th2 and Th3 profiles of cytokines, respectively, suggesting that protection against ALA following gonadectomization, could be related to downregulation of liver Th1 response during amoebic infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cervantes-Rebolledo
- Department of Immunology, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 04510 México DF, México
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Olivos-García A, Saavedra E, Ramos-Martínez E, Nequiz M, Pérez-Tamayo R. Molecular nature of virulence in Entamoeba histolytica. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 9:1033-7. [PMID: 19376272 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2008] [Revised: 03/30/2009] [Accepted: 04/03/2009] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
For many years virulence of pathogenic Entamoeba histolytica has been attributed to the capacity of the parasite to destroy tissues through the expression and/or secretion of various molecules. Such view is supported mainly by in vitro experimentation, whereas data obtained by using animal models of the disease have clearly demonstrated that the host's inflammatory response is primarily responsible for tissue damage. This review analyzes the content and/or activity of some of the presumed toxic amebic molecules present in amebic strains with different degrees of virulence compared to various parasite in vitro functions that are supposed to correlate with in vivo virulence. The analysis suggests that amebic virulence is primarily determined by the parasite's capacity to adapt and survive the aerobic conditions present in animal tissues. This initial episode in the host-parasite relationship is an absolute requirement for the further development of tissue lesions, which result from the concerted action of many molecules derived from both, the host and the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfonso Olivos-García
- Departamento de Medicina Experimental Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México DF, Mexico.
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Ramos-Martínez E, Olivos-García A, Saavedra E, Nequiz M, Sánchez EC, Tello E, El-Hafidi M, Saralegui A, Pineda E, Delgado J, Montfort I, Pérez-Tamayo R. Entamoeba histolytica: oxygen resistance and virulence. Int J Parasitol 2008; 39:693-702. [PMID: 19073188 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Revised: 11/07/2008] [Accepted: 11/10/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Entamoeba histolytica virulence has been attributed to several amoebic molecules such as adhesins, amoebapores and cysteine proteinases, but supporting evidence is either partial or indirect. In this work we compared several in vitro and in vivo features of both virulent E. histolytica (vEh) and non-virulent E. histolytica (nvEh) axenic HM-1 IMSS strains, such as complement resistance, proteinase activity, haemolytic, phagocytic and cytotoxic capacities, survival in mice caecum, and susceptibility to O(2). The only difference observed was a higher in vitro susceptibility of nvEh to O(2). The molecular mechanism of that difference was analyzed in both groups of amoebae after high O(2) exposure. vEh O(2) resistance correlated with: (i) higher O(2) reduction (O(2)(-) and H(2)O(2) production); (ii) increased H(2)O(2) resistance and thiol peroxidase activity, and (iii) reversible pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) inhibition. Despite the high level of carbonylated proteins in nvEh after O(2) exposure, membrane oxidation by reactive oxygen species was not observed. These results suggest that the virulent phenotype of E. histolytica is related to the greater ability to reduce O(2) and H(2)O(2) as well as PFOR reactivation, whereas nvEh undergoes irreversible PFOR inhibition resulting in metabolic failure and amoebic death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Espiridión Ramos-Martínez
- Departamento de Medicina Experimental Facultad de Medicina, Dr. Balmis 148 Colonia Doctores, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, 06720 México DF, CP 04510, Mexico
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