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Correa LA, Aspillaga-Cid A, Bauer CM, Silva-Álvarez D, León C, Ramírez-Estrada J, Soto-Gamboa M, Hayes LD, Ebensperger LA. Social environment and anogenital distance length phenotype interact to explain testosterone levels in a communally rearing rodent: Part 1: The male side. Horm Behav 2024; 160:105479. [PMID: 38278060 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2024.105479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 01/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
In vertebrates, male testosterone levels vary across the year being generally higher during the mating season relative to the offspring rearing season. However, male testosterone levels may also be associated with male anogenital distance (AGD) length (a proxy of prenatal androgen exposition), and influenced by the social group environment. In social species, it has been proposed that high levels of testosterone could be incompatible with the development of an amicable social environment. Thus, in these species, it is predicted that males have relatively low levels of testosterone. Our goal was to examine the potential association between male serum testosterone levels, season, male AGD length, and the social environment in the rodent Octodon degus under natural conditions. We quantified male serum testosterone levels during the mating and offspring rearing seasons, and we determined the number of females and males in each social group, as well as the composition of groups, in terms of the AGD length of the female and male group mates, from 2009 to 2019. Our results revealed that male testosterone levels covary with season, being highest during the offspring rearing season. Additionally, male testosterone levels vary with male AGD length, and female and male social group environments. More importantly, male degus exhibit low levels of testosterone that are indistinguishable from female levels during offspring rearing season. Similar to other highly social mammals, where males and females live together year-round, male amicable behavior could be the best male mating strategy, thus leading to a reduction in circulating testosterone levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loreto A Correa
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Mayor, Camino la Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Antonia Aspillaga-Cid
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carolyn M Bauer
- Department of Biology, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, PA, USA
| | - Danna Silva-Álvarez
- Escuela de Medicina Veterinaria, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Mayor, Camino la Pirámide 5750, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cecilia León
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Juan Ramírez-Estrada
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Mauricio Soto-Gamboa
- Laboratorio de Ecología Conductual y Conservación, Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Loren D Hayes
- Department of Biology, Geology and Environmental Sciences, University of Tennessee at Chattanooga, Chattanooga, TN 37403, USA
| | - Luis A Ebensperger
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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2
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Lattin CR, Kelly TR, Kelly MW, Johnson KM. Constitutive gene expression differs in three brain regions important for cognition in neophobic and non-neophobic house sparrows (Passer domesticus). PLoS One 2022; 17:e0267180. [PMID: 35536842 PMCID: PMC9089922 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0267180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neophobia (aversion to new objects, food, and environments) is a personality trait that affects the ability of wildlife to adapt to new challenges and opportunities. Despite the ubiquity and importance of this trait, the molecular mechanisms underlying repeatable individual differences in neophobia in wild animals are poorly understood. We evaluated wild-caught house sparrows (Passer domesticus) for neophobia in the lab using novel object tests. We then selected a subset of neophobic and non-neophobic individuals (n = 3 of each, all females) and extracted RNA from four brain regions involved in learning, memory, threat perception, and executive function: striatum, caudal dorsomedial hippocampus, medial ventral arcopallium, and caudolateral nidopallium (NCL). Our analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) used 11,889 gene regions annotated in the house sparrow reference genome for which we had an average of 25.7 million mapped reads/sample. PERMANOVA identified significant effects of brain region, phenotype (neophobic vs. non-neophobic), and a brain region by phenotype interaction. Comparing neophobic and non-neophobic birds revealed constitutive differences in DEGs in three of the four brain regions examined: hippocampus (12% of the transcriptome significantly differentially expressed), striatum (4%) and NCL (3%). DEGs included important known neuroendocrine mediators of learning, memory, executive function, and anxiety behavior, including serotonin receptor 5A, dopamine receptors 1, 2 and 5 (downregulated in neophobic birds), and estrogen receptor beta (upregulated in neophobic birds). These results suggest that some of the behavioral differences between phenotypes may be due to underlying gene expression differences in the brain. The large number of DEGs in neophobic and non-neophobic birds also implies that there are major differences in neural function between the two phenotypes that could affect a wide variety of behavioral traits beyond neophobia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine R. Lattin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Tosha R. Kelly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
| | - Morgan W. Kelly
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
| | - Kevin M. Johnson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States of America
- Center for Coastal Marine Sciences, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA, United States of America
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3
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Těšický M, Krajzingrová T, Eliáš J, Velová H, Svobodová J, Bauerová P, Albrecht T, Vinkler M. Inter-annual repeatability and age-dependent changes in plasma testosterone levels in a longitudinally monitored free-living passerine bird. Oecologia 2021; 198:53-66. [PMID: 34800165 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05077-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
While seasonal trends in testosterone levels are known from cross-cohort studies, data on testosterone inter-annual individual repeatability in wild birds are rare. Also, our understanding of hormonal age-dependent changes in testosterone levels is limited. We assessed plasma testosterone levels in 105 samples originating from 49 repeatedly captured free-living great tits (Parus major) sampled during the nesting to investigate their relative long-term repeatability and within-individual changes. Furthermore, we examined the inter-annual repeatability of condition-related traits (carotenoid- and melanin-based plumage ornamentation, ptilochronological feather growth rate, body mass, and haematological heterophil/lymphocyte ratio) and their relationships to testosterone levels. We show that testosterone levels are inter-annually repeatable in females, with a non-significant pattern in males, both in absolute values and individual ranks (indicating the maintenance of relative status in a population). In males, we found a quadratic dependence of testosterone levels on age, with a peak in midlife. In contrast, female testosterone levels showed no age-dependent trends. The inter-annual repeatability of condition-related traits ranged from zero to moderate and was mostly unrelated to plasma testosterone concentrations. However, males with elevated testosterone had significantly higher carotenoid-pigmented yellow plumage brightness, a trait presumably involved in mating. Showing inter-annual repeatability in testosterone levels, this research opens the way to further understanding the causes of variation in condition-related traits. Based on a longitudinal dataset, this study demonstrates that male plasma testosterone undergoes age-related changes that may regulate resource allocation. Our results thus suggest that, unlike females, male birds undergo hormonal senescence similar to mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Těšický
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Tereza Krajzingrová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Eliáš
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Velová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Svobodová
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Bauerová
- Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Prague, Czech Republic.,Division of Air Quality, Czech Hydrometeorological Institute, Tušimice Observatory, Tušimice 6, 432 01, Kadaň, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Albrecht
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic.,Institute of Vertebrate Biology, v.v.i., The Czech Academy of Sciences, Květná 8, 603 65, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Michal Vinkler
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 43, Prague, Czech Republic
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Greives T, Eshleman M, Galante H, Elderbrock E, Deimel C, Hau M. Early nighttime testosterone peaks are correlated with GnRH-induced testosterone in a diurnal songbird. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2021; 312:113861. [PMID: 34302846 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2021.113861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Experimental manipulation has established testosterone as a potent, pleiotropic regulator coordinating morphology, physiology and behavior. However, the relationship of field-sampled, unmanipulated testosterone concentrations with traits of interest is often equivocal. Circulating testosterone varies over the course of the day, and recent reports indicate that testosterone is higher during the night in diurnal songbirds. Yet, most field studies sample testosterone during the morning. Sampling at times when levels and individual variation are low may be one reason relationships between testosterone and other traits are not always observed. Testosterone is regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) initiating the endocrine cascade. Research has examined GnRH-induced testosterone levels with traits of interest, yet the relevance of these induced levels and their relationship with endogenously produced levels are not fully clear. Using photostimulated male great tits (Parus major) we tested the hypotheses that circulating testosterone levels peak during the night and that GnRH-induced testosterone concentrations are positively related to nightly testosterone peaks. Blood was sampled during first, middle or last third of night. One week later, baseline and GnRH-induced testosterone levels were sampled during mid-morning. Morning baseline testosterone levels were low compared with night-sampled levels that peaked during the first third of the night. Further, GnRH-induced testosterone was strongly positively correlated with levels observed during the first third of the night. These data suggest that morning testosterone samples likely do not reflect an individual's endogenous peak. Instead, GnRH-induced testosterone levels do approximate an individual's nightly peak and may be an alternative for birds that cannot easily be sampled at night in the field. These findings are likely to have implications for research aimed at relating traits of interest with natural variation in sex steroid hormone levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy Greives
- North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Fargo, ND, USA.
| | - Michelle Eshleman
- North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Holland Galante
- North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Emily Elderbrock
- North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Fargo, ND, USA
| | - Caroline Deimel
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Evolutionary Physiology Research Group, Seewiesen, Germany
| | - Michaela Hau
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Evolutionary Physiology Research Group, Seewiesen, Germany; University of Konstanz, Department of Biology, Konstanz, Germany
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5
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Singh D, Montoure J, Ketterson ED. Exposure to artificial light at night accelerates but does not override latitude-dependent seasonal reproductive response in a North American songbird. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 279:116867. [PMID: 33770652 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 02/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In the modern era of industrialization, illuminated nights have become a common defining feature of human-occupied environments, particularly cities. Artificial light at night (ALAN) imposes several known negative impacts on the neuroendocrine system, metabolism, and seasonal reproduction of species living in the wild. However, we know little about the impact of ALAN on populations of birds that either live year-round in the same location or move to different latitudes across seasons. To test whether ALAN has a differing impact on the reproductive timing of bird populations that winter in sympatry but breed at different latitudes, we monitored sedentary and migratory male dark-eyed juncos that were or were not exposed to low intensity (∼2.5 ± 0.5 lux) ALAN. All groups were held in common conditions and day length was gradually increased to mimic natural day length changes (NDL). We assessed seasonal reproductive response from initiation to termination of the breeding cycle. As expected based on earlier research, the sedentary birds exhibited earlier gonadal recrudescence and terminated breeding later than the migratory birds. In addition, resident and migrant birds exposed to ALAN initiated gonadal recrudescence earlier and terminated reproductive events sooner as compared to their conspecifics experiencing NDL. Importantly, the difference in the reproductive timing of sedentary and migratory populations was maintained even when exposed to ALAN. This variation in the seasonal reproductive timing may likely have a genetic basis or be the result of early developmental effects imposed due to different light regimes related to the latitude of origin. This study reveals first that ALAN accelerated reproductive development across both migrants and residents and second that latitude-dependent variation in reproductive timing is maintained despite exposure to ALAN. These results corroborate a relationship between latitude, population, and reproductive timing while also revealing ALAN's impact on seasonal reproductive timing. This study reveals that, ALAN accelerated reproductive development but maintained latitude-dependent variation in reproductive timing across both migrant and resident bird populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Singh
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, IN, USA; Environmental Resilience Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, IN, USA.
| | - J Montoure
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, IN, USA
| | - E D Ketterson
- Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, IN, USA; Environmental Resilience Institute, Indiana University, Bloomington, 47405, IN, USA
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Elderbrock EK, Hau M, Greives TJ. Sex steroids modulate circadian behavioral rhythms in captive animals, but does this matter in the wild? Horm Behav 2021; 128:104900. [PMID: 33245879 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Nearly all organisms alter physiological and behavioral activities across the twenty-four-hour day. Endogenous timekeeping mechanisms, which are responsive to environmental and internal cues, allow organisms to anticipate predictable environmental changes and time their daily activities. Among-individual variation in the chronotype, or phenotypic output of these timekeeping mechanisms (i.e. timing of daily behaviors), is often observed in organisms studied under naturalistic environmental conditions. The neuroendocrine system, including sex steroids, has been implicated in the regulation and modulation of endogenous clocks and their behavioral outputs. Numerous studies have found clear evidence that sex steroids modulate circadian and daily timing of activities in captive animals under controlled conditions. However, little is known about how sex steroids influence daily behavioral rhythms in wild organisms or what, if any, implication this may have for survival and reproductive fitness. Here we review the evidence that sex steroids modulate daily timing in vertebrates under controlled conditions. We then discuss how this relationship may be relevant for the reproductive success and fitness of wild organisms and discuss the limited evidence that sex steroids modulate circadian rhythms in wild organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily K Elderbrock
- North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Fargo, ND, USA.
| | - Michaela Hau
- Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Evolutionary Physiology Research Group, Seewiesen, Germany; University of Konstanz, Department of Biology, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Timothy J Greives
- North Dakota State University, Department of Biological Sciences, Fargo, ND, USA
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7
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Grace JK, Parenteau C, Angelier F. Post-natal glucocorticoid elevation affects GnRH-induced luteinizing hormone concentration in female house sparrows. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 283:113238. [PMID: 31376365 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.113238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Most non-mammalian studies investigating the long-term effects of early-life stressor exposure on endocrine regulation have focused on the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA) axis. However, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis may more directly affect fitness by regulating reproduction. Changes in HPG axis regulation could allow vertebrates to adaptively mitigate negative effects of early-life stressor exposure. However, only a few studies have examined long-term effects of early-life stressor experience on the HPG axis, and these have found mixed results. Here, we evaluate long-term effects of post-natal corticosterone exposure on the HPG axis in adult female house sparrows (Passer domesticus). We elevated circulating corticosterone non-invasively in wild nestling house sparrows between 8 and 11 days post-hatching, and then brought birds into captivity at fledging. Early in their first breeding season (ages 285-353d post-hatching), females were given a gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) challenge. We found that early-life corticosterone exposure interacted with current condition such that females exposed to elevated post-natal corticosterone had higher baseline and GnRH-induced luteinizing hormone (LH) concentration than control females, but only if they had a high mass. Our results suggest that female house sparrows may mitigate negative impacts of early-life corticosterone exposure by investing in early reproduction, but only when current energetic condition allows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquelyn K Grace
- Dept. of Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
| | - Charline Parenteau
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Université de la Rochelle, UMR 7372, F-79360 Villiers en Bois, France
| | - Frédéric Angelier
- Centre d'Etudes Biologiques de Chizé, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique-Université de la Rochelle, UMR 7372, F-79360 Villiers en Bois, France
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8
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Graham JL, Needham KB, Bertucci EM, Pearson AA, Bauer CM, Greives TJ. Onset of Daily Activity in a Female Songbird Is Related to Peak-Induced Estradiol Levels. Integr Comp Biol 2019; 59:1059-1067. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icz112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Research in captive birds and mammals has demonstrated that circadian (i.e., daily) behavioral rhythms are altered in response to increases in sex-steroid hormones. Recently, we and others have demonstrated a high degree of individual repeatability in peak (gonadotropin-releasing hormone [GnRH]-induced sex) steroid levels, and we have found that these GnRH-induced levels are highly correlated with their daily (night-time) endogenous peak. Whether or not individual variation in organization and activity of the reproductive endocrine axis is related to daily timing in wild animals is not well known. To begin to explore these possible links, we tested the hypothesis that maximal levels of the sex steroid hormone estradiol (E2) and onset of daily activity are related in a female songbird, the dark-eyed junco (Junco hyemalis). We found that females with higher levels of GnRH-induced E2 departed from their nest in the morning significantly earlier than females with lower stimulated levels. We did not observe a relationship between testosterone and this measure of onset of activity. Our findings suggest an interaction between an individual’s reproductive endocrine axis and the circadian system and variation observed in an individuals’ daily activity onset. We suggest future studies examine the relationship between maximal sex-steroid hormones and timing of daily activity onset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L Graham
- Ecologie Comportementale, Centre d’Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive (CEFE), Centre National De La Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 1919 Route de Mende, 34293 Montpellier 5, France
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, 201 Stevens Hall, 1340 Bolley Drive, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA
| | - Katie B Needham
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, 201 Stevens Hall, 1340 Bolley Drive, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA
| | - Emily M Bertucci
- School of Ecology, University of Georgia, 140 E Green Street, Athens, GA 30602-2202, USA
| | - Alexis A Pearson
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, 201 Stevens Hall, 1340 Bolley Drive, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA
| | - Carolyn M Bauer
- Department of Biology, Adelphi University, 1 South Ave, Garden City, NY 11530, USA
| | - Timothy J Greives
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Dakota State University, 201 Stevens Hall, 1340 Bolley Drive, Fargo, ND 58108-6050, USA
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Vitousek MN, Johnson MA, Husak JF. Illuminating Endocrine Evolution: The Power and Potential of Large-Scale Comparative Analyses. Integr Comp Biol 2018; 58:712-719. [DOI: 10.1093/icb/icy098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Maren N Vitousek
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Cornell University, 159 Sapsucker Woods Road, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Michele A Johnson
- Department of Biology, Trinity University, San Antonio, TX 78212, USA
| | - Jerry F Husak
- Department of Biology, University of St. Thomas, 2115 Summit Avenue, St. Paul, MN 55105, USA
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Needham KB, Kucera AC, Heidinger BJ, Greives TJ. Repeated immune challenges affect testosterone but not sperm quality. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART 2017; 327:398-406. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.2110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Katie B. Needham
- Department of Biological Sciences; North Dakota State University; Fargo North Dakota
| | - Aurelia C. Kucera
- Department of Biological Sciences; North Dakota State University; Fargo North Dakota
| | - Britt J. Heidinger
- Department of Biological Sciences; North Dakota State University; Fargo North Dakota
| | - Timothy J. Greives
- Department of Biological Sciences; North Dakota State University; Fargo North Dakota
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