Estrogen-induced ovarian development is time-limited during the temperature-dependent sex determination of the American alligator

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis of Sexual Differentiation in Male and Female Gonads of Nao-Zhou Stock Large Yellow Croaker (Larimichthys crocea)

The Nao-zhou stock large yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) is a unique economic seawater fish species in China and exhibits significant dimorphism in both male and female phenotypes. Cultivating all-female seedlings can significantly improve breeding efficiency. To accelerate the cultivation process of all female seedlings of this species, it is necessary to deeply understand the regulatory mechanisms of sexual differentiation and gonadal development. This study used Illumina high-throughput sequencing to sequence the transcriptome of the testes and ovaries of Nao-zhou stock large yellow croaker to identify genes and molecular functions related to sex determination. A total of 10,536 differentially expressed genes were identified between males and females, including 5682 upregulated and 4854 downregulated genes. Functional annotation screened out 70 important candidate genes related to sex, including 34 genes highly expressed in the testis (including dmrt1, foxm1, and amh) and 36 genes highly expressed in the ovary (including gdf9, hsd3b1, and sox19b). Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis found that differentially expressed genes were significantly enriched in nine signaling pathways related to sex determination and gonadal development, including steroid hormone biosynthesis, MAPK signaling pathway, and the TGF-beta signaling pathway. By screening sex-related differentially expressed genes and mapping protein-protein interaction networks, hub genes such as dmrt1, amh, and cyp19a1a were found to be highly connected. The expression levels of 15 sex-related genes, including amh, dmrt1, dmrt2a, foxl1, and zp3b, were determined by qRT-PCR and RNA sequencing. This study screened for differentially expressed genes related to sex determination and differentiation of Nao-zhou stock large yellow croaker and revealed the signaling pathways involved in gonad development of male and female individuals. The results provide important data for future research on sex determination and differentiation mechanisms, thereby providing a scientific basis for the cultivation of all-female seedlings.

Exposure to ecologically relevant estrogen levels do not influence morphology or immune parameters in hatchling American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis)

Human activity has increased concentrations of endocrine-disrupting contaminants (EDCs) in many ecological systems. Many EDCs are xenoestrogens, which imitate naturally derived estrogen like estradiol 17-β (E2). These pollutants can critically affect a broad range of biological functions, particularly in organisms inhabiting aquatic environments. E2 and associated receptors are involved in regulating innate immune responses, where documentation of exogenous E2 on immune parameters is important for understanding health consequences. In this study, we explore the impact of environmentally relevant concentrations of E2 on circulating glucocorticoid levels and several innate immune parameters in hatchling American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Twenty-three hatchling alligators were randomly placed in one of three groups that differed in dietary E2 concentration: control (no E2 exposure), low E2 (0.5 μg/kg E2), or high E2 (1 μg/kg E2) for 10 weeks. Following this period, several biomarkers were quantified to monitor the impact of E2: growth, change in body condition, white blood cell (WBC) counts, glucocorticoid levels, and general antibody response. Blood E2 concentrations were greater in individuals exposed to E2, but plasma corticosterone levels were reduced among the experimental groups. Morphology, growth, and immune parameters of E2 exposed animals did not differ from controls. These results suggest that acute exposure to increased environmental estrogen concentrations may alter plasma hormone concentrations but have little to no impact on immediate morphology or immune responses. Future studies may expand on this by monitoring biomarkers in wild populations across time, which will provide insight into how different ontogenetic stages are impacted by environmental contaminants.

Can Xenobiotics Alter the Sex Ratio of Crocodilians in the Wild?

All crocodilians exhibit temperature-dependent sex determination without sex chromosomes. This temperature dependency can be overridden by exposure to estrogen via estrogen receptor 1. Thus, the sex ratio of crocodilian species is vulnerable to estrogenic xenobiotics. Multiple investigations of the mechanism and effects of xenobiotics in crocodilian species have been conducted since the early 1990s. This review focuses on the impact of xenobiotics on sex determination rather than gonadal functions in crocodilians. The thermosensitive and estrogen-sensitive periods that commit the bipotential gonad to develop as an ovary end by stages 24.5 and 25.3, respectively. In contrast, it is ambiguous when the estrogen-sensitive stage begins for ovarian development, although the thermosensitive period for ovarian development initiates around developmental stage 15 at an extreme female-producing temperature of 30°C. To accurately assess the effect of xenoestrogens on sex ratio in crocodilians, it is critical to collect eggs before the sex-determining period and to incubate them under precisely controlled temperatures. A well-studied system of xenobiotic effects on crocodilians is Lake Apopka (FL, USA), an EPA superfund clean-up site heavily contaminated with Dieldrin, Endrin, and p,p'-DDE. The sum of estimated estrogenicity of xenobiotics measured in Lake Apopka was insufficient to activate the estrogen receptor 1 of Alligator mississippiensis, which is an essential receptor to induce ovarian development. Although juvenile A. mississippiensis showed gonadal alterations in sex hormone production and histology, the environmentally relevant concentration of xenobiotics in Lake Apopka was unlikely to alter the sex ratio of A. mississippiensis. Experimental exposure to xenobiotics such as 17α-ethynylestradiol, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene, and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin at environmentally relevant concentrations in ovo induced more female offspring in A. mississippiensis as compared with the control group. Bisphenol-A, atrazine, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, endosulfan, and Corexit did not alter the sex ratio of A. mississippiensis or Caiman latirostris under the tested conditions. Egg-incubation temperature has pronounced effects on estrogen sensitivity in crocodilian sex determination. Therefore, crocodilians are vulnerable to xenobiotic contamination and climate change in the wild. It is vital to further investigate the detailed mechanism and effects of environmental xenobiotics in crocodilian sex determination to mitigate their effect on sex ratio and conserve this ancient lineage.

Is Thermal Responsiveness Affected by Maternal Estrogens in Species with Temperature-Dependent Sex Determination?

In species with temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD), incubation temperatures regulate the expression of genes involved in gonadal differentiation and determine whether the gonads develop into ovaries or testes. For most species, natural incubation conditions result in transient exposure to thermal cues for both ovarian and testis development, but how individuals respond to this transient exposure varies and can drive variation in the resulting sex ratios. Here, we argue that variation in the timing to respond to temperature cues, or thermal responsiveness, is a trait needing further study. Recent work in the red-eared slider turtle (Trachemys scripta) has found that when embryos experience transient exposure to warm conditions (i.e., heatwaves), some embryos show high responsiveness, requiring only short exposures to commit to ovarian development, while others show low responsiveness, developing testes even after more extended exposures to warm conditions. We discuss how maternal estrogens might influence thermal responsiveness for organisms that develop under thermal fluctuations. Examining the interplay of molecular responses to more subtle thermal and endocrine environments may reveal significant insights into the process of sex determination in species with TSD.